fil^r^-^i^^-yj)  ^^^^f-<*^L- 


^v.v,^V,K■,^■      -H^ 


George   Washington. 


ELEMENTS 


UNIVERSAL  HISTW" 


HIGHER  INSTITUTES  IN  REPUBLICS 


AND    FOR  SELF-INSTRUCTION. 


BY 


PROF.  H.  M.gOTTINGER,  a.  M,, 

Author  of  "  Organization  of  Kindergaerten,"  "Zwingli's  Vote  against  Cloisters  and  Convents," 
"Rosa,  the  Educating  Mother,"   "Method  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools  of  Switzer- 
land,"  "Mediaeval  Plays  of  Jacob  RueflF,  with  Explanatory  Notes,"    "Guide 
for  Sunday  Schools  of  Free  German  Congregations,"  etc.,  etc. 


Motto: — Historia,  vitae  magistra. 

(History  teaches  how  to  live.) — Cicero. 


BOSTON,    MASS.: 

CHARLES  H.    WHITING, 

32  Bromfield  Street. 

MILWAUKEE,  WIS.:  SAN  FRANCISCO: 

FREIDENKER  PUBLISHING  CO.,  CUNNINGHAM,  WELCH  &  CO. 

470  East  Water  Street.  Sansom  Street. 

1884. 


r"r:ivAnD  koses 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1884,  by 

Prof.  H.  M.  COTTINGER,  A.  M., 

In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


TO 
THE  CONGRESS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

THE  WARD  OF  THE  PUBLIC  LIBERTY, 

THE    PROMOTOR   OF 

SCIENCES,    ARTS    AND    PUBLIC    EDUCATION, 

AND   THE 

PROTECTOR  OF  COMMERCE  AND  INDUSTRY, 
THIS  WORK 

IS    MOST   RESPECTFULLY   DEDICATED    y.Y 

THE  AUTHOR. 


770040 


PREKACB. 


^'  Tl  7  HAT  is  the  use  of  your  preface  ?     Who  reads  prefaces  ?"     You  are  right, 

V  V  dear  reader,  but  I  shall  be  brief,  and  therefore  beg  your  indulgence.  In 
writing  this  book  I  had  two  aims  in  view,  viz.,  to  communicate  to  scholars  those 
events  which  every  well-educated  man  of  our  age  ought  to  know,  and  to  aid,  with 
the  concurrence  of  historical  facts,  in  forming  their  moral  character  and  sense 
of  right.  The  States  and  events  in  which  the  ideas  of  right  appear  most  perfectly 
realized  are,  therefore,  chiefly  considered.  Both  the  ancient  and  modern  repub- 
lics belong  to  those  States.  Their  history  was  also  taken  into  particular  account 
for  the  reason  that  I  wrote  for  pupils  growing  up  in  republics.  The  family 
wars  and  domestic  feuds  of  princes,  on  the  contrary,  are  only  briefly  touched 
upon.  I  hope  that  the  narration  more  at  large,  of  modern  history  and  the  events 
of  the  latest  times,  will  be  approved.  I  also  trust  that  the  history  of  civilization, 
which  is  joined  in  every  period  to  the  political  history,  and  which  is  generally 
omitted  in  similar  historical  works,  will  be  welcome. 

The  division  of  the  contents  into  periods,  it  seemed  to  me,  considering  the 
vast  extent  of  the  historical  material,  was  very  necessary  in  order  to  get  a  clear 
insight  of  the  latter.  If  general  history  is  written  ethnographically,  it  hardly 
deserves  its  name,  because  the  connection  in  which  the  actions  and  adventures  of 
the  nations  (particularly  since  the  migration  of  nations)  are  put  to  each  other,  is 
completely  severed. 

He  who  would  think  my  work  to  be  only  a  superficial  compilation,  will  judge 
incorrectly;  it  is  the  result  of  my  efforts  during  many  years.  The  most  accom- 
plished and  most  recent  historical  writings  were  carefully  consulted,  viz.,  those  of 
Rotteck,  Schlosser,  Becker,  G.  Weber,  Heeren,  Kriegk,  Boettiger,  Wachsmuth, 
etc.  True,  these  are  German  historiographers ;  but  I  took  also  into  account 
French,  English  and  American  authors,  viz.,  Rollin  (Histoire  du  monde  ancien), 
R.  Mackenzie  (the  19th  century),  Alison,  Fredet,  H.  Willson,  Worcester,  W\ 
Swinton,  Bancroft,  Bryant,  etc.  Nevertheless,  I  am  aware  that  my  composition  is 
still  defective  in  many  parts,  but  I  appeal  to  the  forbearance  of  the  reader  for  in- 
dulgence in  that  respect. 

The  exercises  added  at  the  end  of  every  period  will  enable  the  scholar  the 
better  to  work  up  the  contents  of  the  history,  to  grasp  more  rapidly  the  events, 
and  to  remember  more  easily  the  chronological  dates.  The  exercises  ought  to 
be  done  by  writing. 

Finally,  I  gratefully  acknowledge  the  kind  assistance  of  the  ladies  and  gentle- 
men who  reviewed  and  corrected  the  single  sections  of  the  book,  namely,  of 
Walter  S.  Thorne,  M.  D.;  E.  A.  Clark,  M.  D.;  Rev.  N.  F.  Ravlin,  Pastor  of 
the  Baptist  Church  ;  Mrs.  N.  A.  Simonds  ;  Mrs.  F.  W.  Hill  ;  Miss  Jessie  B. 
Thompson,  teacher  Normal  School ;  C.  O.  W.  Childs,  Professor  of  History,  Nor- 
mal School,  and  Mrs.  Nellie  Eyster,  teacher  and  authoress  ;  to  all  of  them  I  offer 
my  most  sincere  and  cordial  thanks. 

San  Jose,  Cal.,  December,  1883. 


CONTENTS. 


FIRST  SECTION— ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Page. 

1.  Definition  of  Universal  History.     Its  uses  and  division i 

FIRST  PERIOD. 

From  the  Beginning  of  Historical  Certainty  to  the  Greco- 
Persian  Wars.     Despotism  of  Priestly  and  Military 
Government  in  the  Orient.    To  500  B.  C. 

FIRST  CHAPTER— POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

2.  Most  ancient  States.     India.     China.     Egypt. — Sesostris 2 

3.  Assyria.      Babylonia. — Semiramis.     Media 4 

4.  Palestine.     Moses 5 

5.  Persia.     Cyrus 6 

6.  Greece.     Description  of  the  country.     Colonies 8 

7.  Most  ancient  history  of  the  land.     Heroic  age.     Hercules 9 

8.  Concluded.     Expedition  of  the  Argonauts , II 

9.  Sparta.     Lycurgus 12 

ID.  Athens.     Solon 14 

11.  Italy.     Rome.     Romulus.     Junius  Brutus 15 

SECOND  CHAPTER— HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 

12.  Legislation.     Constitutions  of  Lycurgus  and  Solon.   *  Constitution  of 

Rome  under  the  kings 18 

13.  Religions.     Zoroaster.    Buddha.    Cong-fu-Tse.    Grecian  and  Roman 

religions 22 

14.  Arts  and  Sciences.     Buildings  of  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks.     Homer.  26 

15.  Commerce.    Phoenicians.     Invention  of  glass 29 

Exercises 30 

SECOND  PERIOD. 

From    the  Greco-Persian  Wars    to    Emperor  Augustus.    The 

Glorious  Age  of  Greece.     Macedonia's  Universal 

Monarchy.     Roman  Republic.    500-30  B.  C. 

FIRST  CHAPTER— POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

OREECE. 

1.     ITS  GLORIOUS  AGE.    500-430  B.  C. 

16.  Persian  wars.     Battle  at  Marathon.     Miltiades 31 

17.  Continued.     Battle  at  Thermopylae.     Leonidas 34 


X. 

Page. 

§  i8.     Continued.     Battle  at  Salamis.     Themistocles 36 

I  19.     Concluded.     Battle  at  Platsese.     Pausanias.     Aristides.     Cimon 38 

2.     PROGRESSIVE  DECAY  OF  THE  GRECIAN  STATES.      430-146  B.  C. 

§  20.     Peloponnesian  war.     Pericles.     Alcibiades 41 

1 21.     Socrates 44 

I  22.     Theban  war.     Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas.     Battles  at  Leuctra  and 

Mantinea 48 

§  23.     Greece  subdued  by  Macedonia  and  Rome.     Confederacy  of  Achaia...  52 

I  24.     Syracuse.     Timoleon 54 

I  25.    Macedonia.    Philip  II.    Alexander  the  Great,  founder  of  an  universal 

monarchy.     Battles  at  Granicus,  Issus  and  Arbela 56 

ROMAN    RKPUBLIC.    510-30  B.  C. 

1.     COMBATS  AGAINST  FOREIGN  ENEMIES  AND  THE  PATRICIANS.    510  TILL 

ABOUT  343  B.  C. 

§  26.     War  against  the  Tarquinians.      Porsenna.      Horatius  Codes.     Mu- 

cius  Scsevola 59 

§27.     Domestic  feuds  between  the  patricians  andplebeians.    Appointment  of 

tribunes 61 

§  28.  Coriolanus.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus.  The  XII  tables  and  the  de- 
cemvirs.    Incursion  of  the  Gauls 63 

2.  CONTESTS  FOR  THE  DOMINION  IN  ITALY.    348-267  B.  C. 

^  29.     War  against  the  Samnites  and  Latins.     A  Roman  army  passes  under 

the  yoke  in  the  Caudine  Mountains 65 

I  30.     Tarentine  war.     Fabricius 67 

3.  CONTESTS  FOR  THE  WORLD'S  DOMINION.    264-183  B.  C. 

§31.     Carthage.     First  Punic  war.     Regulus 69 

332.     Second  Punic  war.     Hannibal.     Battle  at  Cannse 71 

I  33.     Concluded.     Scipio  Africanus.     Battle  at  Zama 74 

§  34.  Subjugation  of  Macedonia,  Syria  and  Greece.  Death  of  Hannibal. 
Third  Punic  war.     Destruction  of  Carthage  and  Corinth.     Scipio, 

junior 76 

4.     DOMESTIC  STRUGGLES  AND  DOWNFALL  OF  THE  REPUBLIC. 
133-30  B.  C. ' 

I  35.  The  two  Gracchi.  War  with  the  Cimbri.  War  against  the  confed- 
erates. First  civil  war.  Marius  and  Sulla.  War  against  the 
slaves  and  pirates  ;  against  Mithridates,  Conspiracy  of  Catiline. 
Cicero 7^ 

§  36.     First  triumvirate.     Caesar,  Pompey  and  Crassus.     Second  civil  war. 

Battle  at  Pharsalia 80 

§  37.     Second  triumvirate.     Antonius,  Octavius  and  Lepidus.     Third  civil 

war.     Battle  at  Actium 83 

SECOND'  CHAPTER— HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 

§  38.     Constitution,  morals,  social   and   military   condition  of  the   Roman 

State 84 

§  39.  Arts  and  sciences.  Julian  calendar.  Schools.  Public  games.  Com- 
merce      85 

Exercises 89 


XI. 
THIRD  PERIOD. 

From  Emperor  Augustus  to  the  Great  Migration  of  Nations. 

Roman  Empire  and  its  Decay.    Victory  of 

Christianity.    30  B.  C.  to  375  A.  D. 

FIRST  CHAPTER— POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

ROMAN  EMPIRE.    30  B.  C.  TO  375  A.  D. 

Page. 

40.  Augustus  and  the  emperors  from  his  descent 90 

41.  Rome  ruled  by  good  emperors.     Decay  of  the  empire 91 

42.  Germany.     Arminius  (Herman) 93 

SECOND  CHAPTER— HISTORY  OF   CIVILIZATION. 

43.  Roman  Constitution.     Morals  and  customs  of  the  ancient  Germans.  95 

44.  Religion  of  the  ancient  Germans.     Christian  religion 96 

45.  Arts  and  sciences 9^ 

Exercises 99 


SECOND  SECTION— HISTORY  OF  THE 
MIDDLE  AGES. 

FOURTH '  PERIOD. 

From  the  Migration  of  the  Nations  to  the  Decay  of  the 

Dominion  of  the  Franks,     i.   Migration  of  Nations. 

2.   Mohammedan  Empire.      3.   Carlo- 

vingian  Monarchy.    375-900  A.  D. 

FIRST  CHAPTER— POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

1.     MIGRATION  OF  NATIONS.    375-568  A.  D. 

g  46.     Summary  of  the  migration.     Huns.     Attila loi 

^  47.     Visigoths.     Alaric.     Downfall  of  the  Western  Roman  empire.    Os- 
trogoths.    Theodoric.     Justinian.      Belisarius.....' 103 

2.    -MOHAMMEDAN  UNIVERSAL  EMPIRE.    632-900  A.  D. 
^48.     Arabia,     Mohammed.     The  Caliphate 105 

3.     CARLOVINGIAN  MONARCHY.    771-900  A.  D. 

g  49.      Franks.      Clovis.     Major-domos.     Charlemagne.      Partition   of   his 

realm..... 107 

§50.     England.     Anglo-Saxons.     Alfred  the  Great iio 

SECOND  CHAPTER— HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 

^51.     State  of  Constitutions.     Roman  laws.     Propagation  and  degeneracy 

of  Christianity.     Monachism.     Mohammedan  religion ill 

^  52.     Arts  and  sciences.     Arabian  culture.     Commerce 113 

Exercises .-. 115 


XII. 

FIFTH   PERIOD. 

From  the  Decay  of  the  Empire  of  the  Franks  to  the  End  of 

THE  Crusades,     i.  The  German  Empire  in  its  Prime. 

2.    Universal  Dominion  of  the  Popes. 

3.    Crusades.     900-1300  A.  D. 

FIRST  CHAPTER— POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

1.     PRIME  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE.     900-1024  A.  D. 

Pagt. 
\  53.     Germany.     Saxon  emperors.     Henry  I.     Otto  1 115 

2.     UNIVERSAL  DOxMINION  OF  THE  POPES.     1024-1300  A.  D. 

§54.     Continued.     Franconian  emperors.      Henry  IV.   and   Gregory  VII.   117 

\  55.  Continued.  Emperors  of  the  family  Hohenstauffen.  Frederic  Bar- 
barossa.  Arnold  of  Brescia.  First  contest  of  the  Lombard  cit- 
ies for  liberty I19 

\  56.  Concluded.  Frederic  II.  Second  contest  of  the  Lombards  for  free- 
dom.    Conradin.     Sicilian  vespers 121 

^57.     France  and  England.     Hugh  Capet.    William  the  Conqueror.    Wars 

between  England  and  Scotland.     The  Albigenses 123 

\  58.     Northern  States  of  Europe.     Normans.     Russia.     Mongols 126 

3.     THE  CRUSADES.     1096-1300  A.  D. 

^59.     First  crusade.     Godfrey  of  Bouillon.     Taking  of  Jerusalem 128 

\  60.     The  other  crusades.     Emir  Saladin.     Latin  empire 130 

SECOND  CHAPTER— HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 

^61.     Constitutions.     Feudal     government.     Feudal     servitude.     Magna 

Charta  of  England.     Ordeals.     Chivalry 134 

I  62.     The  Church.    Anathema.    Interdict.    Inquisitional  Tribunal,    Canon 

Law.     Celibacy.     Popes.     Gregory    VH.     Innocent  III 136 

^  63.     Arts  and  sciences.     Troubadours  and  minnesingers.    Commerce 140 

Exercises 142 

SIXTH  PERIOD. 

From  the  End  of  the  Crusades  to  the  Discovery  of  Am^ica. 

Downfall  of  the  Imperial  Power,  of  the  Papacy 

AND  THE  Church,     i  300-1492  A.  D. 

FIRST  CHAPTER— POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

\  64.     Germany.     Rudolph   of  Hapsburg.     The    House    of   Luxemburg. 

War  of  the  Hussites.     Maximilian  I ; 142 

I  65.     Switzerland.     Contests  of  the  confederates   for  liberty.      Battles  at 

Sempach,  Granson  and  Murten.     Arnold  Winkelried 145 

\  66.     France  and  England.     Philip  the  Fair.     Abolition  of  the  Order  of 

the  Templars.     French-English  national  war.    Joan  of  Arc.    War 

of  the   Two   Roses 148 

\  67.     The  Turks   in  Europe.     Capture  of  Constantinople 151 

SECOND  CHAPTER— HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 

^68.     State   of  right.     Laws.     Secret  court  of  criminal  justice 152 

I  69.     Church.     Wycliffe.     Huss.     Popes.    Schism  of  the  Church.      Synod 

of  Constance 153 


XIII. 

Page. 


\  70.     Arts  and  sciences.     Invention  of    the  printing  press.     Gutenberg. 

Commerce.     Hanseatic  union " 155 

Exercises .* 157 


THIRD  SECTION— MODERN  HISTORY.      ^ 

SEVENTH   PERIOD. 

From  the  Discovery  of  America  to  the  Westphalian  Peace. 

Voyages  of  Discovery.    Reformation  of  the  Christian 

Church.    Wars  of  Religion.     1492-1648  A.  D. 

FIRST  CHAPTER— POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

1.    VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY.    1420-1530  A.  D. 

\  71.     Vasco  de  Gama.     Columbus 159 

I  72.     Ferdinand   Cortez.     Pizzaro.     Magellan.     First  settlements  in   the 

territory  of  the  United  States.     The  Pilgrim  Fathers 163 

2.    REFORMATION  OF  THE  CHURCH  AND  RELIGIOUS  WARS. 
"       1517-1648  A.  D. 

\  73.     Germany.     Causes  of  the  Reformation.     Martin  Luther.     Diet  in 

Worms 166 

§  74.     Continued.    Insurrection  of  the  peasants.     Confession  of  Augsburg. 

Smalcaldian  war.     Religious  peace  of  Augsburg 170 

\  75.     Continued.     Thirty    years'    war.     Insurrection   of    the  Bohemians. 

Ferdinand  I L     Restitution  edict 172 

§76.     Continued.     Gustavus  Adolphus.     Battles  at  Leipsic  and  Lutzen 173 

I  77.     Concluded.      Battle  at  Nordlingen.     Bernard    of    Weimar.      Tors- 

tensohn.     Westphalian  peace 176 

\  78.     Switzerland.      Zwingli.      Calvin.      Unitarians 177 

\  79«     Spain.     Philip    II.     Secession    of   the    Netherlands.     William    of 

Orange 179 

\  80.     France.     War   against   the  Huguenots.     St.   Bartholomew.     Henry 

IV.     Edict  of  Nantes 181 

\  81.     England    and    Scotland.     Henry  VIII.     Elizabeth.     Mary   Stuart. 

Charles  1 184 

^82.     Northern  States.     Sweden.     Gustavus  Vasa.     Prussia 189 

SECOND  CHAPTER— HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 

I  83.     Protestants.     The    Catholic    Church.     Synod   of  Trent.     Order   of 

the  Jesuits 190 

\  84.     Sciences    and  arts.     Raphael.     Shakespeare.     Cervantes.     Nicholas 

.Copernicus.     Galileo.     Correction  of  the  calendar 193 

Exercises 195 

EIGHTH  PERIOD. 

From    the    Westphalian    Peace    to    the  French  Revolution. 

Unlimited  Monarchy  and  European  Equilibrium. 

164 7-1 789  A.  D. 

FIRST  CHAPTER— POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

§85.     Austria.    Sobieski.  Maria  Theresa.    War  of  Succession.  Joseph  II...  196 
I  86.     Prussia.     Frederic  II.     Seven  years'  war.     Battles  at  Rossbach  and 

Lissa 198 


XIV. 

Page. 

\  87.  France.  Louis  XIV. 's  predominance  in  Europe.  His  wars.  Span- 
ish succession  war.  Battle  at  Blenheim.  Persecution  of  Protest- 
ants.    Louis  XV 200 

\  88.  England.  Cromwell.  War  against  Holland.  Admirals  Blake,  Van 
Tromp  and  Ruyter.  Charles  H.  Whigs  and  Tories.  Dethrone- 
ment of  James  II.  William  III.  Accession  of  the  House  of 
Hanover.     The  Pietenders 203 

\  89.     Northern  States.     Peter  the  Great.     Charles  XII.     Battles  at  Narva 

and    Pultowa.     First  dismemberment  of   Poland 206 

^90.     East  Indies.     Aureng  Zeb.     East  Indian  Company 209 

^91.     United   States   of   North   America.     Their   colonies.     The    French 

wars 210 

\  92.  Continued.  War  of  the  colonies  for  independence.  The  Stamp  Act. 
Battle  at  Bunker  Hill.  Declaration  of  Independence.  George 
Washington.     Benjamin   Franklin.     Thomas    Paine 215 

\  93.  Concluded.  Battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton.  Lafayette.  Sur- 
render of  Burgoyne  and  Cornwallis.  French  alliance.  Treaty  of 
Paris.     Constitution.     Washington,  first  president 219 

SECOND  CHAPTER— HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 

g  94.     Political  condition.     Constitution  of  the  United  States 224 

I  95.     Condition  of  the  Church.     Voltaire.     J.  J.   Rousseau.     Abolition  of 

the  Order  of  Jesuits 225 

\  96.     Arts  and  sciences.    Inventions.     Cook's  voyages  of  discovery 227 

Exercises 230 

NINTH   PERIOD. 

From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Second  Peace  of  Paris. 

Revolution  and  Political  Reforms  in  France.    Wars 

Caused  by  it.     1789-1815  A.  D. 

A.     FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

1.     POLITICAL  REFORMS  IN  FRANCE.    1789-1792  A.  D. 

I    97.  Causes  and  effects  of  the  French  revolution 231 

I    98.  National  Assembly.     The  third  estate.     Mirabeau 232 

\    99.  Taking  the  Bastile.     Abolition  of  feudal  servitude 234 

I  100.  Louis  conducted  to  Paris 236 

2.    REVOLUTIONARY  WARS. 

\  loi.     Flight  of  the  king.     The  constitution  finished 238 

I  102.     Legislative  assembly.     War  of  Austria  and  Prussia.     Suspension 

of  the  king.     The  Jacobins 239 

\  103.     National  Convent.     Execution  of  Louis  XVI.     First  coalition  war. 

Civil  war.     Reign  of  Terror ; 242 

\  104.     Downfall  of  the  Reign  of  Terror.     Directorial  government.     The 

coalition  war  continued.     Napoleon  Bonaparte 245 

\  105.     Napoleon's  expedition  to  Egypt.     Second  coalition  war.     Battle  at 

the  Pyramids.    Naval  combat  at  Abukir.    Consular  government.  247 

\  106.  French  empire.  Third  coalition  war.  Prusso-Russian  war.  Bat- 
tles at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Auerstadt,  Eilau  and  Friedland.  The 
Continental  system 249 

g  107.     Spanish,  Austrian  and  Russian  wars.     Burning  of  Mosdow.... 251 

I  108.  Fourth  coalition  war.  Battle  at  Leipsic.  Restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons. Congress  of  Vienna.  German  Confederation.  Battle  at 
Waterloo.  Napoleon  banished  to  Elba,  and  captive  in  St.  Hel- 
ena.    The  Holy  Alliance ; 254 


XV. 

Page. 
B.     PARTICULAR  HISTORY  OF  SOME  STATES. 

2  109.     Switzerland.     Austria.     England 257 

I  110.     Poland.     Second  and  third  partition.     Kosciusko 258 

I  III.     United  States  of  North  America.     War  against  England.     Battle  at 

New  Orleans.     Republic  of  Hayti.     Toussaint  Louverture 260 

Exercises 263 

TENTH    PERIOD. 

From  the  Second  Parisian  Treaty  to  the  Present  Time.    Res- 
toration.    Limitation  of  the  Monarchies.     Last 
Revolutions.     1815-1883  A.  D. 

FIRST  CHAPTER— POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

1.    TIME  OF  RESTORATION.     1815-1830  A.  D. 

I  112.  France.     Germany 264 

§  113.  Spain  and  Portugal 266 

^114.  Italy.     Insurrections  in  Naples  and  Piedmont 268 

3  115.  Greece.     Contest  against  the  Porte.     Ypsilanti.     Bozzaris.     Fall  of 

Missolonghi.     Naval  battle  at  Navarino.     Mehemed  Ali 269 

§  116.  America.  United  States.  Missouri  Compromise.  Monroe  doc- 
trine. Protective  tariflf.  Contests  of  the  Spanish  colonies  for 
independence.     Bolivar.     Brazil 273 

2.     THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1830  IN  FRANCE,  AND  ITS  CONSEQUENCES. 
1830-1848  A.  D. 

§117.     France.     Revolution  of  July.     Dethronement  of  Charles  X.     The 

family  of  Orleans 276 

^118.     Belgium.     Separation  from  Holland.     Germany 279 

\  119.     Switzerland.     Political   reforms.     Secession  war.     Amendment  of 

the  constitution 281 

\  120.     Poland  and  Russia.     Revolution  in  Poland.     Battle  of  Ostrolenka. 

Caucasian  war.     Shamyl , 283 

§  121.  Great  Britain.  Emancipation  of  the  Catholics.  Reform  of  the  par- 
liament. Emancipation  of  the  slaves.  The  Corn  laws  relaxed. 
O'Connell.  Lord  Russell.  Dominion  in  the  East  Indies.  War 
against  China 285 

\  122.  United  States  of  North  America.  Indian  wars.  War  with  Mexico. 
Generals  Taylor  and  Scott.  Battles  at  Buena  Vista  and  Chapul- 
tepec.     Capture  of  Vera  Cruz  and  of  the  City  of  Mexico 287 

3.    THE  REVOLUTIONS  IN  1848. 

\  123.  France.  Dethronement  of  Louis  Philippe.  Establishment  of  a  re- 
piiblic  and  of  an  empire.  Louis  Napoleon  III.  Franco-German 
war.     Battle  at  Sedan.     Restoration  of  the  republic 290 

\  124.  Germany.  Insurrection  in  Berlin  and  in  the  Grand  dukedom  of 
Baden.  German  National  Assembly.  Schleswig  and  Holstein. 
Prusso-Austrian  war.     Battle  at  Sadowa 294 

\  125.     Austria.     Insurrection   in   Vienna.     Reforms  of   the  government. 

War  in  Hungary.     Kossuth.     Gorgey  surrenders  at  Villagos 298 

\  126.  Italy.  Revolutions  of  the  Italian  States.  War  of  Austria  against 
Sardinia  and  France.  Battles  at  Magenta  and  Solferino.  United 
kingdom  of  Italy.     Garibaldi 301 

\  127.     Russia.     Crimean  war.     Siege  of  Sebastopol.     Russo-Turkish  war. 

Surrender  of  the  Turks  at  Shipka  Pass 304 

§  128.     America.     Secession  war  in  the  United  States.     Abraham  Lincoln..  306 


XVI. 

Page. 

§  129.     Continued.      Emancipation  of    the   slaves.     Battle   at   Gettysburg. 

Surrender  of  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson 312 

§  130.  Concluded.  Sherman's  march  to  the  Sea.  Surrender  of  Richmond 
and  of  the  confederate  army.  Lincoln  assassinated.  Amendment 
of  the  Constitution.     Free  Homestead  Bill 315 

§  131.    Japan 320 

SECOND  CHAPTER. 

HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION  DURING  THE  NINTH  AND  TENTH  PERIODS. 

^  132.     Constitutions.     Political  and  social  tendencies.     Position  of  woman. 

Military  condition.     Church 321 

§  133.     Arts  and  sciences.     Public  schools 324 

^  134.  Inventions.  Steamboats.  Railroads.  Telegraphs.  Cable.  Tele- 
phones.    Photography.     Cotton-gin.      Exhibitions   of   arts   and 

industry 328 

Exercises 330 


FIRST  SECTION, 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


^  1.    Definition   of   Universal  History.     Its  Uses    and 

Division. 

Universal  History  is  the  representation  of  generally  remark- 
able facts,  both  of  entire  nations  and  of  individuals.  Its  uses  are 
manifold.  It  teaches  us  to  know  our  nature,  to  respect  it,  as  well 
as  ourselves.  It  offers  us  the  treasures  of  the  experience  of  all  cen- 
turies. It  teaches  us  to  form  a  just  opinion  of  the  most  impor- 
tant events  of  public  and  private  life..  It  explains  the  present  by 
the  past,  and  sharpens  the  sight  of  the  future.  It  disposes  the 
mind  to  toleration  in  religious  matters,  to  genuine  piety,  to  patriot- 
ism, and  to  benevolence  towards  the  whole  of  mankind.  It  leads  us 
to  abhor  follies,  vices  and  crimes,  encourages  to  virtue,  and  in- 
spires a  love  for  right  and  liberty.  How  often  has  not  the  example 
of  a  Leonidas,  of  an  Arminius,  of  a  Washington,  incited  to  imita- 
tion ?  It  teaches  us,  besides,  to  believe  in  the  ruling  of  eternal  laws 
of  the  universe,  and  in  a  sure  retribution.  Finally,  it  shows  how 
man  is  himself,  for  the  most  part,  the  creator  of  his  own  happmess 
and  misery. 

Universal  History  is  commonly  divided  into  three  parts,  viz : 
ancient,  mediaeval  and  modern  time.  Ancient  history  extends  from 
the  beginning  of  historical  certainty  to  the  great  migration  of 
nations,  A.  D.  375 ;  mediaeval  history  to  the  discovery  of  America 
in  1492  ;  and  from  that  date  also  begins  the  history  of  modern  times. 

Universal  History  may  be  also  divided  into  several  periods  or 
epochs,  which,  in  this  book,  are  marked  as  follows : 

I.  From  the  beginning  of  historical  certainty  to  the  Greco- 
Persian  wars,  /.  ^.  to  500  B.  C. 

II.  From  the  Greco-Persian  wars  to  the  Emperor  Augustus, 
500  B.  C.  to  30  B.  C. 

g  I.  What  is  Universal  History  ?  Describe  its  uses.  What  are  its  principal 
divisions  ?     Give  their  limits  of  time. 


lit/'  '5^0111  Augustus  to  the  great  migration  of  nations,  30  B.  C. 

'^~    ''    '^  ^  '•^"  rV.'^^'From  the  migration  of  nations  to  the  decay  of  the  realm 
of  the  Franks,  375-900  A.  D. 

V.  From  the  decay  of  the  realm  of  the  Franks  to  the  end  of  the 
Crusades,  900-1300  A.  D. 

VI.  From  the  end  of  the  Crusades  to  the  discovery  of  America, 
1300-1492  A.  D. 

VII.  From  the  discovery  of  America  to  the  Westphalian  peace, 
1492-1648  A.  D. 

VIII.  From  the  Westphalian  peace  to  the  French  revolution, 
1648-1789  A.  D. 

IX.  From  the  French  revolution  to  the  second  peace  of  Paris, 
1789-1815  A.  p. 

X.  From  the  second  peace  of  Paris  to  the  present  time,  18 15- 
1883  A.  D. 


.  FIRST    PERIOD. 

From  the  Beginning  of  Historical  Certainty  to  the  Greco- 
Persian  Wars.     Despotisnn  of  Priestly  and  Military 
Government  in  the  Orient.     To  500  B.  G. 


PIEST  OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL  HISTOEY. 


g  2.    The  Most  Ancient  States  — India,  China,  Egypt; 
Sesostris. 

Ancient  History  properly  begins  at  that  period  where  events 
commence  to  be  certain ;  but  their  certainty  does  not  reach  beyond 
600  years  before  Christ.  The  most  ancient  States  were  probably  in 
India  and  China.  The  relics  of  old  monuments,  which  still  exist 
there,  plead  for  the  high  antiquity  of  the  Indian  States.  From 
India  the  ancient  nations  brought  their  cultivation,  and  the  Egyp- 

I  2.  How  many  periods  are  set  down  in  this  book?  Mark  the  limits  of 
time  of  each  period.  What  is  the  earliest  date  of  historical  certainty  ?  What 
States  are  probably  the  most  ancient  ?     What  reasons  speak  for  their  antiquity  ? 


tians  and  Greeks,  in  all  probability,  their  religious  ceremonies,  too. 
The  States  in  Nubia  (Ethiopia)  and  Egypt  may  next  be  mentioned. 
The  first  inhabitants  of  Nubia  were  partly  troglodytes,  or  cave- 
dwellers.  Later,  the  theocratical  State  of  Meroe  originated  there, 
and  the  temples,  pyramids  and  other  splendid  remains  of  archi- 
tecture of  it  may  still  be  found. 

First  herdsmen  passed  through  Egypt;  then  it  was  probably 
settled  from  the  State  of  Meroe  by  colonies  of  priests,  who  sub- 
dued these  herdsmen  and  introduced  agriculture.  Such  a  colony 
was  Thebais,  with  the  city  of  Thebes,  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  first 
known  king  (Pharaoh)  was  Menes,  probably  the  founder  of  Mein- 
phis,  about  2000  years  B.  C.  A  large  part  of  Egypt  was  conquered 
by  the  pastoral  kings  (Hyksos),  who  arrived  from  Arabia.  At  last 
the  Egyptians  took  courage  and  expelled  the  foreigners  (probably 
about  1700  B.  C.)  Not  long  after  the  whole  country  was  united 
into  one  State,  of  which  Thebes  became  the  capital ;  and  thencefor- 
ward the  Egyptian  realm  flourished  for  1000  years. 

Thebes  became  the  principal  seat  of  human  civilization. 
Moeris  is  said  to  have  constructed  the  lake  bearing  the  same  name. 
Sesostris,  his  successor  (about  1500  B.  C),  built  magnificent  temples, 
many  canals  and  public  roads,  and  was  a  good  law-giver.  He  is 
also  reported  to  have  divided  the  country  into  twelve  temple  districts, 
and  to  have  designated  three  capitals,  namely  :  Thebes  for.  Upper 
Egypt,  Memphis  for  Middle  Egypt,  and  HeliopoHs  for  Lower 
Egypt.  His  vessels  navigated  as  far  as  India.  Besides,  he  was 
a  powerful  conqueror,  and  raised  Egypt  to  her  highest  lustre.  The 
Nubians  conquered  the  country  in  the  eighth  century,  but  re- 
mained in  possession  of  it  only  a  short  time.  About  670  B.  C.  it 
was  divided  among  twelve  sovereigns,  who  are  said  to  have  con- 
structed the  I^abyrinth  on  Lake  Moeris.  One  of  them,  Psammeti- 
chus,  sovereign  of  Sais,  aided  by  mercenaries,  vanquished  the  others 
and  conquered  the  whole  land.  From  the  period  of  his  reign  the 
obscurity  of  Egyptian  history  becomes  more  clear.  He  opened  the 
harbors  of  the  country  to  foreigners,  and  the  nation  now  entered 
into  commercial  relations  with  the  Greeks.  His  son  Neko  (Necho) 
is  said  to  have  had  Africa  circumnavigated  by  Phoenicians.  Camby- 
ses,  king  of  Persia,  conquered  Egypt  (530  B.  C.),  and  from  that 

What  of  the  State  of  Meroe  ?  Who  is  the  first  known  king  of  Egypt  ?  Who 
conquered  a  large  part  of  Egypt  ?  What  city  became  the  capital  of  the  united 
States  of  Egypt  ?  What  of  Moeris  ?  Of  Sesostris  ?  Who  constructed  the  Laby- 
rinth ?    Who  conquered  the  whole  of  Egypt  ? 


time  it  remained  almost  continuously  tributary  to  Persia,  until  Alex- 
ander the  Great  overturned  the  throne  of  Cyrus  (333  B.  C),  and 
also  conquered  this  country.  After  Alexander's  death  it  fell  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Ptolemies. 

§  3.     Assyria.     Babylonia. — Semiramis.     Media. 

The  Assyrian  empire,  which  comprised  Babylonia,  Media  and 
Bactria,  was  (about  2000  B.  C.)  founded  by  Ninus,  the  builder  of 
Nineveh,  a  city  which  was  said  to  extend  a  three  days'  journey  on 
the  Tigris,  because  it  also  embraced  fields  and  pasture  grounds. 
His  wife  was  Semiramis,  who  is  reported  to  have  excited  admiration 
by  her  heroic  exploits.  Ninus  left  her  the  crown.  She  built  or 
embellished  Babylon,  and  undertook  expeditions  of  conquest  with 
immense  hosts,  but  succumbed  in  a  war  against  India,  the  riches  of 
which  nation  had  allured  her  greediness.  Her  son  Ninias  was  only 
a  mock  king.  From  his  time  down  to  the  reveller  Sardanapalus, 
history  presents  nothing  memorable  of  the  sovereigns  of  Assyria. 
Nabopolassar,  governor  of  Babylon,  revolted  against  the  latter  about 
600  B.  C,  and  aided  by  Cyaxares,  the  king  of  Media,  deprived  him 
of  the  government.  Sardanapalus  burned  himself  with  his  wives 
and  treasures ;  the  victors  destroyed  Nineveh,  and  shared  the  empire 
among  themselves.  After  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  the  Babylo- 
nians or  Chaldseans  were  the  most  important  people  in  these  coun- 
tries. They  were  nomadic  mountaineers,  who  had  come  down  from 
the  north  to  the  plains  of  Babylonia,  entered  into  the  service  of  the 
Assyrian  kings,  and  received  Babylonia  for  their  habitation.  Nabo- 
polassar himself  belonged  to  this  tribe.  His  son,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
conquered  Egypt  and  Judea,  demolished  Jerusalem,  and  removed 
the  wealthy  portion  of  its  inhabitants  to  Babylonia.  He  is  reported 
to  have  also  conquered  the  great  commercial  cities  Sidon  and 
Tyre — the  latter  not  until  after  thirteen  years  of  valiant  resistance. 
Then  Tyre  (as  they  say)  was  founded  anew  on  a  neighboring  island. 
Cyrus  destroyed  the  Chaldaean-Babylonian  realm  in  539  B.  C. 

The  Medians,  Bactrians  and  Persians  occupied  the  country  be- 
tween the  Tigris  and  Indus  as  far  as  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  at  first 
formed  but  one  nation.  From  their  language,  the  Zend,  they  are  also 
called  the  Zend  nation.     When  the  Medians  had  thrown  off  the  As- 

What  foreign  sovereigns  conquered  Egypt  in  later  times  ?  ^3.  yVho  founded 
the  Assyrian  empire  ?  Who  was  the  wife  of  Ninus  ?  What  of  her  ?  What 
of  Ninus  ?  Who  deprived  wSardanapalus  of  the  government  ?  What  kind  of  a 
people  were  the  Chaldoeans  ?     What  of  Nebuchadnezzar  ? 


Syrian  yoke,  they  lived  for  a  time  in  anarchy,  and  experienced  all  its 
terrors  ;  then  they  elected  Deioces  umpire,  who,  by  good  laws,  put 
an  end  to  the  confusion.  They  built  Ecbatana  as  a  residence  for 
him,  which  then  remained  the  capital  of  the  land.  King  Cyaxares 
was  his  grandson.  Cyrus  dethroned  Astyages,  son  of  Cyaxares,  and 
changed  Media  into  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire. 

§  4.    Palestine.    Moses. 

Abraham  (Abram),  a  pastoral  sovereign  in  Mesopotamia  (be- 
tween the  Euphrates  and  Tigris)  emigrated  to  Palestine  about  2000 
B.  C.  His  descendants  are  designated  after  him,  whom  the  natives 
of  the  country  named  Eber  (that  is,  the  comer  from  yonder),  as 
Hebrews ;  after  his  grandson  Jacob,  who  bore  the  surname  Israel,  as 
Israehtes,  and  after  Judah,  son  of  Jacob,  as  Jews. 

The  Jews,  in  later  times,  migrated  to  Egypt,  where  the  Hyksos 
severely  oppressed  them.  Moses  there  became  their  liberator. 
According  to  common  report,  he  had  received  an  excellent  educa- 
tion at  the  royal  court.  He  was  especially  initiated  into  the  religious 
mysteries  of  the  priests.  Once,  seeing  an  Egyptian  treat  a  com- 
patriot cruelly,  he  grew  enraged,  killed  the  aggressor,  and  fled,  hid- 
ing in  the  Arabian  desert.  Here  the  great  idea  ripened  in  his  mind 
to  liberate  his  compatriots.  He  returned,  prepared  them  for  his 
bold  plan,  and  led  them,  in  spite  of  the  resistance  of  Egypt's  sov- 
ereign, into  the  northern  free,  though  barren,  part  of  Arabia  (about 
1500  B.  C.)  He  conquered  the  country  situated  east  of  the  Jordan  ; 
his  successor,  Joshua,  subdued  Palestine  proper.  The  Jews  were 
subjected  to  the  sway  of  the  priests ;  but  the  insolence  and  crimes 
of  the  sons  of  the  high  priests,  Heli  and  Samuel,  rendered  their 
rule  so  hateful  to  them  that  they  finally  demanded  a  king.  Samuel 
gave  them  one  in  the  person  of  Saul  (1095  ^-  C.)>  but  as  the  latter 
would  not  be  a  mere  tool  of  the  priests,  Samuel,  soon  after,  chose 
David  in  order  to  oppose  Saul ;  then  civil  war  broke  out.  In  the 
contest  with  the  Philistines,  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  Jews, 
Saul  lost  the  decisive  battle,  and,  seeing  his  sons  fall,  inflicted  death 
upon  himself.  David,  at  last,  was  universally  acknowledged  king, 
but  the  rebellion  of  his  sons  disturbed  his  quiet  occupation  of  the 
throne.     He  liked  war,  and  is  said  to  have  enlarged  his  dominion 

What  is  said  of  Deioces?  Who  made  an  end  to  the  Median  reign? 
^  4.  What  is  said  of  Abraham  ?  What  are  his  descendants  called  ?  Who 
oppressed  the  Jews  in  Egypt  ?  Who  became  their  liberator  ?  Relate  his  biog- 
raphy.    What  kinds  of  government  had  the  Jews  ?     What  of  Saul  and  David  ? 


as  far  as  Egypt  and  to  the  Euphrates.  His  son  Solomon  (1014 
B.  C.)  did  not  at  all  fulfill  the  expectations  the  nation  entertained 
of  his  wisdom.  He  oppressed  it  by  taxes  and  socage,  cruelly  per- 
secuted his  adversaries,  introduced  oriental  pomp  at  his  court,  and 
disgraced  himself  by  voluptuousness  and  idolatry.  The  people  be- 
came dissatisfied,  the  priests  nourished  the  ill  feelings  of  the  public 
mind,  and  roused  against  him  an  antagonistic  king  in  the  person  of 
Jeroboam;  Solomon,  nevertheless,  maintained  the  throne.  But 
when  his  son  and  successor,  Rehabeam,  afflicted  the  people  still 
more  cruelly,  they  revolted  again  (975  B.  C),  and  ten  tribes  chose 
Jeroboam  their  king.  Only  two  tribes  remained  faithful ;  they  con- 
stituted the  Judaic,  the  other  ten  the  Israelitic  kingdom.  At  first 
the  capital  of  the  latter  was  Sichem,  afterwards  Samaria.  Both 
kingdoms  weakened  themselves  more  and  more  by  discord,  religious 
quarrels  and  viciousness.  The  prophets  (teachers  of  the  people, 
who  influenced  the  nation  and  the  kings  by  their  songs  and 
speeches)  in  vain  predicted  the  ruin  of  the  people;  in  vain  they 
exhorted  to  reform,  concord,  piety ;  their  voice  was  not  listened  to. 
At  last  both  States  became  the  prey  of  foreign  conquerors;  the 
Israelites  were  removed  by  Salmonassar  to  Media  (722  B.  C),  and 
the  Jews  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Babylonia  (600  B.  C.)  New  in- 
habitants emigrated  from  the  provinces  of  the  conquerors  to  Pales- 
tine. They  intermixed  with  those  who  had  remained,  and  received 
the  name  of  Samaritans.  Cyrus  permitted  the  Jews  to  return  to 
their  country  (about  535  B.  C),  where  they  rebuilt  the  temple  and 
the  capital,  but  remained  subject  to  the  Persians. 

g  S.    Persia.    Cyrus. 

Cyrus  (Kyros),  a  Persian  nobleman  and  grandson  of  King 
Astyages,  at  the  head  of  his  discontented  fellow-citizens,  dethroned 
his  grandfather,  who  (as  some  report)  had  intended  to  kill  Cyrus 
immediately  after  his  birth.  He  conquered  Media,  Armenia  and 
Cappadocia,  thereby  becoming  the  neighbor  of  the  powerful  Crce- 
sus,  king  of  Lydia.  The  latter,  whose  riches  became  proverbial, 
made  war  on  Cyrus,  being  brother-in-law  of  Astyages,  but  his  capi- 
tal, Sardes,  was  captured  after  a  short  siege,  and  he  himself  taken 
prisoner  (548  B.  C.)     It  was  decreed  that  he  be  put  to  death.     He 

How  did  Solomon  govern  the  Jews  ?  Who  was  his  successor  ?  Into  what 
kingdoms  was  Palestine  separated  under  Rehabeam  ?  Who  conquered  them  ? 
What  does  the  name  "Samaritans"  mean?  ^5.  From  whom  did  Cyrus 
descend  ?    What  countries  did  he  conquer  ? 


was  fettered,  and  sat  on  the  burning  funeral  pile,  when  he  called  three 
times  the  name  of  Solon.  Asked  for  the  reason  of  his  calling,  he 
answered  that  the  wise  Solon  had  once  directed  his  attention  to  the 
mutability  of  his  fortune,  and  that  he  now  experienced  how  truth- 
fully the  former  had  spoken.  Cyrus,  greatly  affected,  granted  the 
unhappy  man  life,  and  even  his  friendship.  After  this  the  latter 
continued  his  course  of  conquests.  One  of  his  generals  subdued 
the  Asiatic  Greeks;  Cyrus  himself  marched  against  Babylon  and 
vanquished  that  city  (538  B.  C),  notwithstanding  its  high  walls  and 
deep  ditches,  entering  by  stratagem  (it  is  reported)  through  a  branch 
of  the  Euphrates  which  he  had  turned  off,  into  the  city,  where  the 
people,  after  a  riotous  festival,  were  in  a  drunken  stupor.  He  ob- 
tained with  the  capital  also  possession  of  the  Babylonian  realm  and 
its  dependencies,  Syria,  Phoenicia  and  Palestine,  after  which  he 
attempted  to  subjugate  the  Massagetae  beyond  the  Caspian  Sea,  but 
he  and  his  whole  army  were  annihilated.  Tomyris,  their  queen,  put 
Cyrus'  head  in  a  leather  bag  filled  with  blood,  crying :  "  Drink  now 
your  fill  of  blood,  because  you  were  always  thirsty  for  it."  Others 
report  not  only  the  death,  but  the  whole  biography  of  Cyrus  in  a 
different  way. 

His  son  and  successor,  Cambyses,  conquered  Egypt.  He  wanted 
also  to  subjugate  the  Nubians  ;  but  the  desert  through  which  he  had 
to  march  soon  compelled  him  to  return.  Another  army  which  he 
sent  against  the  Ammonians  in  the  Lybian  desert,  met  its  destruc- 
tion there.  It  is  said  that  the  despot  killed  his  own  sister,  and  that 
he  also,  prompted  by  mere  suspicion,  caused  his  brother  Smerdes  to 
be  killed.  At  last  a  conspiracy  was  planned,  headed  by  the  Magi, 
who  averred  that  the  brother  of  a  Magus,  pretending  to  be  Smerdis, 
ought  to  be  the  sovereign.  Cambyses  marched  against  him,  but 
wounded  himself  so  dangerously  with  his  sword,  which,  as  he 
mounted  his  horse,  happened  to  pass  into  his  hips,  that  he  died. 
The  Persians  paid  homage  to  the  false  Smerdis ;  but  seven  noblemen 
soon  conspired  against  him,  killed  him,  and,  by  lot,  elected  Darius, 
son  of  the  Governor  Hystaspes,  to  succeed  him.  The  latter  also 
subjugated  several  countries,  e.  g.  Thracia  and  Macedonia.  The 
Greeks  in  Asia  Minor,  who  bore  the  Persian  yoke  with  indignation, 
attempted  to  liberate  themselves.  They  rose  against  Darius,  Aris- 
tagoras,  governor  of  Milet,  being  at  the  head  of  the  revolt,  expelled 

What  is  said  of  Cyrus  ?  How  was  Babylon  captured  by  Cyrus  ?'  By  whom 
was  he  killed  ?  What  is  said  of  Tomyris  ?  What  of  Cambyses  ?  How  did  he 
lose  his  life  ?  Who  succeeded  the  false  Smerdis  ?  Narrate  the  revolt  of  the 
Asiatic  Greeks  against  Darius. 


8 

their  tyrants,  and  gave  all  cities  republican  forms  of  government. 
But  it  seemed  to  them  to  be  necessary,  in  their  dangerous  under- 
taking, to  ally  themselves  also  with  the  European  Greeks.  Arista- 
goras  first  applied  to  the  Spartans  for  assistance,  but  it  was  refused. 
The  Athenians,  on  the  contrary,  already  provoked  by  Darius  be- 
cause he  commanded  them  to  reinstate  the  expelled  Hippias  (see 
§  lo),  granted  them  assistance.  As  soon  as  their  fleet  in  Asia 
arrived  all  the  lonians  rose,  and  attacked  Darius  in  his  own  territory 
(503  B.  C.)  They  succeeded,  indeed,  in  burning  Sardes,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Persian  governor  (Satrap);  but  they  were  vanquished 
at  Ephesus.  Upon  this  the  Athenians,  returning  home,  left  them 
alone.  The  lonians  continued  to  struggle,  but  were  once  more 
beaten  (498  B.  C),  and  had  again  to  submit.  The  opulent  city  of 
Milet  was  destroyed,  and  Histi^us,  father-in-law  of  Aristagoras, 
who  had  first  encouraged  the  lonians  to  rebel,  fastened  to  the  cross. 
Then  Darius  endeavored  to  subdue  also  the  European  Greeks,  but 
this  undertaking  was  an  entire  failure  (see  §16).  The  Persian  power 
had,  under  his  rule,  attained  its  summit ;  .the  wars  waged  against  the 
Greeks  by  himself  and  by  his  successor,  Xerxes,  shook  it  already 
to  its  foundation.  The  bloody  quarrels  between  his  successors 
for  the  throne,  the  wars  of  Satraps  and  a  slack  government  weak- 
ened the  empire  still  more ;  the  conquered  lands  fell  off;  and  Gre- 
cian mercenaries  were  the  last  prop  of  the  tottering  throne.  Finally, 
the  destruction  of  the  rotten  monarchy  by  Alexander  the  Great 
followed  under  Darius  Codomannus,  last  scion  of  the  royal  family 
(330  B.  C.)  

GREECE.* 


^  6.    Description  of  the  Country.    Colonies. 

South  of  the  Balkans,  a  peninsula  of  the  Mediterranean  is  situ- 
ated, the  northern  half  of  which  contains  Thracia,  Macedonia  and 
a  part  of  Illyria,  but  the  southern  one  Greece  proper.  The  latter 
was  divided  into  Northern  Greece,  Hellas  and  Peloponnesus.  In 
Northern  Greece,  at  the  west,  was  Epirus ;  at  the  east  Thessalia, 
with  Mount  Olympus.     From  Thessalia  the  rocky  pass  Thermopylae 

What  was  the  fate  of  Histiseus  ?      What  were  the  causes  of  the  downfall  of 

the    Persian   monarchy  ?     §  6.     Define   the   situation   of    the   Grecian   States  ? 

Of  Macedonia?      Hellas?     Peloponnesus?     Thessalia? 

*This  country  occupies  but  a  speck  on  the  map  of  the  earth,  but  its  history  is  more  important 
than  that  of  the  mightiest  empires  that  have  overshadowed  the  earth.  Its  inhabitants  excelled  all 
ancient  nations  for  genius,  learning,  attainments  in  sciences  and  arts,  republican  institutions  and 
heroic  exploits,  and  they  have  been  the  teachers  of  all  succeeding  ages.  Hence  their  history  is 
related  more  in  detail. 


9 

led  to  Hellas,  into  the  territories  of  Locris,  Doris  and  Phokis. 
In  Phokis,  at  Delphi,  on  Mount  Parnassus,  stood  the  celebrated 
temple  of  Apollo.  West  of  these  small  States  ^tolia  and  Acarnania 
were  situated — the  latter  with  the  promontory  Actium  ;  east,  Boeotia 
with  the  city  of  Thebes.  Bceotia  was  bordered  on  the  south  by 
Attica  and  the  capital  Athens,  and  by  the  small  land  of  Megaris, 
from  which  the  Strait  of  Corinth  led  to  the  Peloponnesus.  In  the 
northeast  were  Argolis  and  the  cities  of  Argos  and  Mikenae,  and  in 
the  north,  Achaia  and  the  magnificent  cities  of  Corinth  and  Sicyon. 
The  western  coast  was  occupied  by  EHs,  with  the  town  of  Olympia. 
Southwest  was  Messenia,  and  southeast  Laconia,  with  the  capital, 
Sparta.  In  the  central  part  of  Peloponnesus,  Arcadia,  the  Grecian 
Switzerland,  and  for  a  long  time  the  seat  of  high  simplicity  of 
morals,  was  situated. 

The  largest  of  the  Grecian  islands  were  Eubsea,  Crete,  Rhodes 
and  Cyprus.  All  flourished,  and  became  powerful  by  their  com- 
merce. Among  the  smaller  ones  Salamis  and  Delos  grew  famous — 
the  former  by  the  great  Persian  sea-fight,  and  the  latter  by  the  temple 
of  Apollo. 

The  Greeks  had  many  colonies,  and  although  the  latter  were 
entirely  independent  from  the  mother  States,  still  they  lived  in 
friendly  relations  with  them.  The  most  renowned  in  Asia  were 
Smyrna,  Mytilyne,  on  the  island  of  Lesbos,  Miletus,  Ephesus  and 
Phocoea.  When  Cyrus  overrun  Asia  Minor,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
last  named  city  left  their  native  country  in  quest  of  freedom  and 
founded  Marseilles,  in  France,  where  they  imported  the  grapevine 
and  the  olive  tree.  In  Europe,  the  coasts  of  the  Azov,  Black  and 
^gean  seas  were  settled  by  the  Greeks,  whose  colonies  flourished 
at  Theodosia  (Caffa),  Tanais  (Azov)  and  Byzantium  (Constantino- 
ple). They  also  peopled  Lower  Italy  (Great  Greece)  and  Sicily. 
Messana  and  Syracuse  prospered  in  the  latter  country ;  and  Cuma 
(Naples),  Tarentum,  the  luxurious  Sybaris  and  Croton,  in  the  former. 
Greece  also  had  many  other  colonies  in  Illyria,  Sardinia,  Corsica, 
Spain,  Lybia  and  Egypt. 

I  7.     Ancient  History  of  the  Land.     Heroic  Age. 
Hercules. 

The  Pelasgi  and  Hellenes  were  the  most  renowned  among  the 
ancient  nations  of  Greece.     The  former  immigrated  from  Thracia ; 

Define  the  situation  of  Boeotia  ?  Attica  ?  Argolis  ?  Laconia  ?  What  were 
the  principal  cities  in  Boeotia,  Attica,  Argolis  and  Laconia  ?  Which  of  the  Gre- 
cian islands  is  the  largest  ?     Give  the  names  of  some  renowned  Grecian  colonies. 


10 

from  the  latter  the  central  part  of  Greece  obtained  its  name.  The 
common  name  "  Greeks  "  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  Graecos, 
one  of  the  Pelasgian  chiefs.  Cecrops,  an  Egyptian  (according  to 
common  narrative)  went  with  a  colony  from  Sais  to  Attica  (1582 
B,  C.),  founded  a  state  there,  and  built  the  citadel  Cecropia,  around 
which  the  city  of  Athens  afterwards  sprang  up,  which  derived  its 
name  from  its  tutelar  goddess  Athenae  (Minerva).  He  also  estab- 
lished the  Areopagus,  a  criminal  tribunal,  which,  in  course  of  time, 
became  renowned.  Some  ages  after  Cecrops,  the  Phoenician  Cad- 
mos  settled  in  Bo^otia  (about  1500  B.  C.),  erected  the  citadel  of 
Thebes  and  taught  the  inhabitants  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  vine 
culture,  and  the  art  of  preparing  metals. 

At  the  same  time  (about  1500  B.  C.),  the  Peloponnesus  received 
higher  culture  by  the  Egyptian  Danaus,  and  200  years  later  by  the 
Phrygian  Pelops.  From  the  latter  it  derived  its  name,  as  he  and 
his  descendants  occupied  the  most  important  districts  there.  The 
atrocious  misdeeds  and  unhappy  fate  of  the  Pelopidas  became  the 
principal  subject  of  the  Grecian  tragedies.  Soon  after  Cecrops, 
Amphictyon  established  (as  reported)  an  alliance  of  different  Hell- 
enic towns,  called  the  court  of  the  Amphictyons,  the  members  of 
which  managed  the  affairs  of  the  Delphian  temple,  arranged  the 
Olympian  games,  and,  in  later  times,  also  settled  the  differences  of 
the  league. 

In  the  Heroic  Age  Perseus,  Hercules,  Theseus,  and  other  heroes 
delivered  their  country  from  dangerous  beasts  and  men,  for  which 
deeds  they  were  greatly  celebrated,  and  even  idolized.  Their  ex- 
ploits are  themes  of  different  poetical  fictions.  Thus :  Perseus 
killed  Medusa,  and  seized  her  petrifying  head ;  the  winged  horse, 
Pegasus,  carried  him  on  great  exploits.  Hercules,  in  the  cradle, 
crushed  two  serpents,  and  in  the  service  of  his  kinsman,  king 
Eurystheus,  performed  the  twelve  achievements  celebrated  by  many 
songs,  viz. :  He  killed  the  Nemean  lion ;  cut  off  the  many  heads 
of  the  Lernaean  serpent;  caught  a  huge  boar  in  Arcadia,  bound 
him,  and  carried  him  on  his  shoulders  to  the  king ;  he  overtook  a 
swift  stag ;  fought  with  the  Amazons — fabulous,  warlike  women  in 
Asia  Minor — for  the  shoulder-belt  of  their  queen;  cleaned  the 
stable  of  Augias,  etc.     He  even  descended  twice  to  the  Tartarus, 

^  7.  Give  the  derivation  of  the  name  "  Greeks  ?  "  Who  was  the  tutelar 
goddess  of  Athens  ?  Who  taught  the  Boeotians  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  ? 
By  whom  did  the  Peloponnesus  receive  a  higher  culture  ?  What  of  Amphictyon  ? 
What  exploits  does  tradition  narrate  of  Hercules  ? 


11 

and  caught  the  Cerberus,  that  three-headed  dog  who  watched  its 
entrance. 

I  8.     Concluded.     Expedition  of  the  Argonauts.     Wars  of 
Thebes  and  Troja. 

In  this  period  also  occurred  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts 
and  the  wars  of  Thebes  and  Troja.  The  Argonauts  sailed  to  Colchis, 
in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  Argo,  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece.  They  were 
induced,  by  commercial  interests,  probably,  to  undertake  this  perilous 
voyage.  Theseus,  Hercules  and  Orpheus — the  latter,  by  his  won- 
derful songs,  is  said  to  have  tamed  even  wild  beasts — were  among 
them ;  Jason  was  their  leader.  After  a  long,  hazardous  errant  voy- 
age the  heroes  returned  to  Greece. 

The  Theban  war  (about  1230  B.  C.)  was  caused  by  Eteocles 
and  Polynices,  sons  of  CEdipus,  whose  traditional  fate  was  also  a 
principal  subject  of  the  Grecian  stage.  Eteocles,  contrary  to  a 
stipulated  agreement,  desired  to  govern  alone  in  Thebes.  Seven 
sovereigns  in  vain  jointly  opposed  him,  in  order  to  procure  his 
brother's  rights;  they  did  not  prevail.  The  hostile  brothers,  after 
having  thoroughly  drenched  the  native  soil  with  blood,  killed  each 
other  in  a  duel,  and  all  the  chiefs  but  one  fell  in  the  combat ;  ten 
years  later,  however,  their  sons  renewed  the  war  against  Thebes. 
At  last  the  son  of  Polynices  obtained  the  government. 

Not  many  years  after  this  war  Paris,  son  of  Priamus,  who  was 
king  of  Troja  in  Asia  Minor,  carried  off  Helena,  wife  of  Menelaus, 
king  of  Sparta.  To  revenge  this  outrage,  almost  all  the  Greek 
sovereigns  united  and  declared  war  against  Priamus  (about  1200  B. 
C.)  Agamemnon,  brother  of  Menelaus,  became  their  leader.  Con- 
trary winds,  for  a  long  time,  hindered  their  departure.  The  priests 
interpreted  this  circumstance  to  be  a  sign  of  the  displeasure  of  the 
gods.  In  order  to  propitiate  them,  Iphigenia,  Agamemnon's 
daughter,  was  to  be  sacrificed,  but  Minerva  (according  to  tradi- 
tion) withdrew  the  unhappy  virgin  from  death  by  a  cloud.  In  the 
contest  which  ensued,  besides  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus,  the 
Ajaces  excelled  by  their  valor ;  Ulysses,  king  of  Ithaca,  by  prudence 
and  cunning;  the  old  Nestor,  king  of  Messenia,  by  wisdom ;  and  most 
of  all,  Achilles,  chief  of  the  Thessalians,  by  his  heroic  feats.     Patro- 

§  8.  Give  an  account  of  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts  ?  Who  were  its 
leaders  ?  How  did  the  Theban  war  originate  ?  Narrate  its  principal  circum- 
stances. Give  the  details  of  the  Trojan  war.  How  did  it  originate  ?  Who 
were  the  principal  parties  on  both  sides  ? 


12 

clus,  the  faithful  friend  of  Achilles,  was  his  companion.  The  chief- 
tains of  the  Trojans  were  the  courageous  Hector,  son  of  Priamus, 
^neas,  and  others.  As  many  sovereigns  of  Asia  aided  Priamus,  the 
war  was  a  protracted  one,  and  lasted  (as  the  Greek  poets  say),  ten 
years.  Hector  fell  under  the  sword  of  Achilles,  and  the  latter  was 
slain  by  an  arrow  of  Paris.  The  city  at  last  was  taken  by  a  strata- 
gem. Several  Greeks  hid  in  a  wooden  horse,  which  the  Greeks  had 
dedicated  to  Minerva.  The  superstitious  Trojans  pulled  this  horse 
into  the  city,  and  during  the  night  the  hidden  Greeks,  who  had  thus 
gained  an  entrance  into  the  city,  opened  the  town-gates  to  the  Gre- 
cian army.  Priamus,  his  remaining  sons,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants 
were  killed,  the  city  reduced  to  a  mass  of  ruins,  and  the  queen, 
her  daughters,  and  the  most  distinguished  ladies  were  carried  away 
as  slaves.  Tempests  rendered  the  return  of  the  Greeks  to  their 
country  difficult ;  Menelaus  was  carried  away  to  far  distant  regions, 
and  Ulysses  strayed  about  for  ten  years  before  he  again  saw  Ithaca ; 
Agamemnon,  after  his  return,  was  murdered  by  his  wife.  The  long 
absence  of  the  Greeks  from  home  caused  sad  disorders  in  Greece. 
About  one  hundred  years  later,  still  greater  calamities  befell  the 
Peloponnesus,  namely,  Hercules  was  (as  tradition  reports)  excluded 
from  the  dominion  of  Peloponnesus,  part  of  which  belonged  to  him, 
and  Eurystheus  compelled  his  descendants,  the  Heraclidae,  to  for- 
sake their  native  country.  They  returned  however,  after  some 
years,  and,  aided  by  the  Doriens,  conquered  almost  the  whole  of 
Peloponnesus.  A  large  number  of  the  vanquished  left  the  country 
and  founded  colonies  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  many  of  which  became  famous. 

Repeated  revolutions  finally  changed  the  poHtical  form  of  Greece. 
Irritated  by  tyrannic  oppression,  some  people  cast  off  their  yoke, 
others  followed  their  example,  and  on  the  ruins  of  the  monarchies 
young  republics  arose,  among  which  Sparta  and  Athens  became 
most  renowned. 

§  9.     Sparta.     Lyeurgus. 

When  the  Heraclidae,  Eurystenes  and  Procles,  conquered  Sparta, 
(see  §  8),  both  brothers  became  kings,  and  thereafter  always  two  of 
their  descendants  were  governing  together.     This  division  of  the 

What  was  the  duration  of  the  Trojan  war?  By  what  stratagem  was  the  city 
captured  ?  What  adversities  did  Menelaus,  Agamemnon  and  Ulysses  experience 
on  their  return  ?  What  cause  induced  the  Greeks  to  change  their  monarchies 
into  republics  ?     Which  among  the  latter  became  most  renowned  ? 


13 

highest  power  was  a  lasting  source  of  discord  in  the  small  State 
until  Lycurgus  appeared.  His  brother's  widow  offered  Lycur- 
gus  her  hand  and  the  throne ;  she  declared  herself  ready  even  to 
kill  her  son,  but  he  repudiated  the  shameful  proposal,  saved  the  life 
of  the  boy,  and  governed  as  his  tutor.  When  Lycurgus  saw  that  his 
generositj^  even  did  not  shield  him  against  the  suspicion  of  ambition, 
he  left  his  country  and  went  to  Creta,  where  king  Minos,  by  his 
laws,  had  become  renowned ;  from  thence  he  went  to  Asia  Minor 
and  Egypt,  in  order  to  get  acquainted  with  the  laws  and  customs  of 
those  countries. 

Sparta,  becoming  still  more  agitated  by  lawlessness,  longed  for 
the  absent  Lycurgus,  who  returned  and  became  the  legislator  of  his 
country  (about  880  B.  C.)  He  first  communicated  his  design  to 
the  friends  of  the  fatherland  and  of  order,  and  then  consulted  the 
oracle  of  Delphi  as  to  its  feasibility,  which  declared  the  contem- 
plated legislation  to  be  the  best.  To  be  still  surer  of  success,  Lycur- 
gus bade  the  most  distinguished  of  his  confidants,  provided  with 
arms,  to  make  their  appearance  at  the  moment  of  the  mtroduction 
of  the  laws.  The  common  people  received  them*  with  approba- 
tion, but  the  wealthy  ones,  who  lost  their  riches  by  equal  division 
of  the  public  domain,  grew  hostile  to  him  and  caused  a  sedition. 
A  young  fellow  struck  him  in  the  eye  with  a  stick;  the  furious 
people  seized  the  offender  and  delivered  him  to  Lycurgus  to  punish 
him  as  he  pleased.  He  received  the  fellow  into  his  house,  but  in- 
stead of  chastising,  he  treated  him  so  kindly  that  he  soon  became  his 
heartiest  eulogist.  It  is  said  that  Lycurgus,  in  order  to  render  his 
laws  inviolable,  went  on  a  journey  to  Delphi,  and  made  the  Spar- 
tans take  an  oath  that  until  his  return  they  would  inviolably  main- 
tain them  ;  that  the  oracle  confirmed  them,  declaring  that  as  long  as 
Sparta  observed  them,  she  would  be  the  most  glorious  city  in  the 
world ;  and  that  Lycurgus  then,  in  order  to  prevent  the  Spartans 
from  breaking  their  oath  at  any  time,  voluntarily  starved  himself  to 
death. 

The  rest  of  Sparta's  history,  in  this  period,  presents  little  of  in- 
terest. She  waged  two  more  wars  against  the  Messenians  (743 
and  685  B.  C),  the  second  of  which  ended  with  the  demoHtion  of 
the  principal  place  of  this  people,  and  with  the  loss  of  their 
liberty.     As  Sparta's  power  was  foremost  in  the  peninsula,  most  of 

Give  a  biography  of  Lycurgus.  What  circumstances  occurred  at  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  laws  of  Lycurgus  ?  How  did  he  behave  against  his  offender  ?  In 
what  way  did  he  try  to  render  his  laws  inviolable  ? 


14 

the  other  States  conferred  on  her  also  the  right  of  supreme  leader- 
ship (hegemonia). 

^  lO.     Athens.      Solon. 

For  a  long  time  Attica  was  divided  into  several  independent  dis- 
tricts. Theseus  united  them  (about  1250  B.  C.)  into  one  body  politic 
and  formed  a  kind  of  republic,  the  head  of  which  was  Athena. 
His  successors,  however,  retained  the  royal  name  down  to  Codrus. 
This  saved  Athens,  which  was  attacked  by  the  Heraclidae  through 
his  voluntary  death  (about  1068  B.  C.)  An  oracle  had  predicted  to 
the  Athenians  that  the  party  whose  chief  would  be  killed  by  the 
enemy  should  gain  the  victory.  Both  parties,  therefore,  were  on 
their  guard  not  to  kill  the  generals,  but  Codrus,  determined  to  pro- 
cure the  victory  for  the  Athenians,  went  into  the-camp  of  the  enemy 
in  the  disguise  of  a  peasant,  designedly  began  a  quarrel,  and  was,  in 
the  eagerness  of  dispute,  slain  by  his  enemies.  Upon  learning 
whom  they  had  killed  the  enemy  became  discouraged  and  retreated. 
The  Athenians  now  abolished  the  royal  office  and  put  the  oldest  son 
of  Codrus,  with  the  title  of  "  Archon,"  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment. His  tenure  was  for  life  and  hereditary  ;  the  archons,  how- 
ever, were  rec[uired  to  give  an  account  of  their  administration. 
This  form  of  government  lasted  300  years.  The  office  of  the  archons, 
bearing  too  strong  a  resemblance  to  royal  power,  was  afterward  re- 
duced from  life  to  a  period  of  ten  years.  At  last  it  became  annual, 
and  to  this  end  was  divided  among  several  archons. 

Athens,  up  to  this  time,  had  no  written  laws.  Draco  gave  a  code 
to  the  State  (624  B.  C.)  However,  as  they  were  too  severe,  and, 
as  the  ancients  said,  written  in  blood,  they  were  enforced  only  a 
short  time.  Unrestricted  licentiousness  then  succeeded  the  utmost 
constraint.  Solon  only  was  able  to  put  an  end  to  this  chaotic  con- 
dition, for  he  was  prominent  by  birth  and  enlightened  by  studies 
and  travels ;  moreover,  he  was  so  disinterested  that  he  refused  the 
royalty.  Solon  had  made  himself  famous  by  several  meritorious 
achievements,  and  possessed  the  universal  confidence  of  the  peo- 
ple. He  became  archon  (594  B.  C),  and  the  people  now  de- 
manded new  legislation  of  him.  The  poorer  and  indebted  portion 
of  them  desired  Solon,  as  Lycurgus  had  done,  to  distribute  all  of 
the  land  into  equal  parts,  but  Solon  chose  another  expedient,  that 

How  did  Codrus  sacrifice  his  life  for  his  country  ?  What  did  the  title  of 
"Archon  "  mean  in  Athens  ?  What  was  the  spirit  of  the  laws  of  Draco  ?  Who 
was  lawgiver  after  him  ?  By  what  means  did  Solon  try  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  poor  in  Athens  ? 


15 

of  reducing  the  rate  of  interest  and  raising  the  value  of  coin.  All 
living  in  bondage,  probably  on  account  of  indebtedness,  were  set 
free.  These  measures,  however,  satisfied  neither  the  rich  nor  the 
poor.  Solon,  in  his  constitution,  also  took  the  middle  course. 
After  having  finished  it,  he  determined  to  leave  Athens,  which  he 
did,  and  remained  absent  for  ten  years.  He  obliged  the  people  to 
take  an  oath  not  to  change  his  laws  during  his  absence ;  that  they 
should  first  satisfy  themselves  by  experience  of  their  propriety.  He 
traveled  over  Egypt,  Asia  Minor  and  other  countries.  In  Lydia, 
Croesus  received  him  honorably.  When  Lycurgus  returned  to 
Athens,  he  found  the  peace  of  the  State  disturbed  by  ambitious 
men.  Pisistratus,  his  relative,  had  ensnared  the  people.  Once  he  de- 
signedly wounded  himself,  and,  covered  with  blood,  appeared  before 
the  people  and  called  for  their  help,  as  he  pretended,  against  their 
common  enemies^  who  had  attempted  to  murder  him.  Then  one 
of  his  confidants  demanded  a  body-guard  for  the  excellent  citizen. 
Pisistratus  got  it,  and  with  its  assistance  took  possession  of  the  castle. 
Solon  tried  in  vain  to  rekindle  the  love  of  liberty  in  the  minds  of 
the  citizens ;  he  did  not  succeed.  Pisistratus  continued  to  be  unlim- 
ited ruler.     Soon  after  the  wise  man  died  (559  B.  C.) 

Hipparchus  and  Hippias,  sons  of  Pisistratus,  governed  jointly. 
Their  abuse  of  power  caused  a  conspiracy  against  them.  Hippar- 
chus was  killed,  while  Hippias  was  blocked  up  in  his  castle,  and  his 
children  were  taken  prisoners.  This  accident  forced  him  to  resign 
and  to  leave  Athens  (510  B.  C.)  He  fled  to  Darius,  king  of 
Persia,  who  demanded  that  the  tyrant  should  be  reinstated;  but 
the  Athenians  did  not  comply.  Afterward  Hippias  was  killed  in 
the  battle  of  Marathon  while  fighting  against  his  country. 

^  11.     Italy.    Rome.     Romulus.     Junius  Brutus. 

In  the  northern  part  of  Italy  (Gallia  cisalpina)  primitively  the 
GaUi  lived;  in  the  southern  (Great  Greece)  Greek  colonists;  in  the 
middle,  the  Hetrurii,  Latini,  Samnitse  and  other  people.  The 
Hetrurii,  (Etruski,  Tuski)  diff"used  themselves  over  modern  Tus- 
cany, and  were  early  distinguished  by  their  culture.     Their  alphl- 

What  is  said  of  Solon's  travels  ?  How  did  Pisistratus  ensnare  the  people  ? 
What  did  one  of  his  confidants  demand  for  him  ?  Of  what  did  he  take  posses- 
sion ?  What  did  Solon  try  to  rekindle  ?  Did  he  succeed  ?  How  did  Hippar- 
chus and  Hippias  govern  in  Athens  ?  What  was  their  fate  ?  §  11.  Who  were 
the  inhabitants  of  northern  and  middle  Italy  ? 


16 

bet  is  the  foundation  of  all  sorts  of  European  letters,  and  the  Tus- 
can order  of  columns  is  older  than  the  Dorian. 

In  the  south,  Latium  bordered  on  Hetruria.  An  Arcadian  colony 
settled  on  the  Tiber  (about  1 240  B.  C.)  The  people  in  that  vicinity  are 
said  to  have  received  the  name  of  Latini  from  King  Latinus.  ^neas 
who,  after  the  destruction  of  Troja,  arrived  there  with  a  troop  of 
fugitive  Trojans,  is  reported  to  have  married  his  daughter  and  in- 
herited his  realm.  Alba  Longa  became  the  capital  of  Latium.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  Numitor,  king  of  Alba  Longa,  was  deprived 
of  the  throne  by  his  brother  Amulius.  His  daughter  had  two 
sons,  Romulus  and  Remus,  whom  Amulius  caused  to  be  thrown  into 
the  Tiber,  because  he  was  afraid  that  they  would  deprive  him  again 
of  the  government.  The  boys  were  saved  through  the  pity  of  a 
shepherd,  and  brought  up  by  his  wife.  When  it  was  discovered  that 
they  were  Numitor's  grandsons,  they  caused  a  sedition  against  Amu- 
lius, who  wa,s  killed,  and  their  grandfather  again  became  king.  Nu- 
mitor permitted  his  enterprising  grandsons  to  lay  the  foundation  of 
a  new  settlement,  and  they  built  Rome  on  the  Palatine  hill  (753  B.  C.) 
A  band  of  their  compatriots,  who  were  still  rude  shepherds,  assisted 
them  in  this  undertaking.  In  order  to  rapidly  augment  the  num- 
ber of  citizens,  Romulus,  according  to  tradition,  opened  an  asylum 
for  fugitive  criminals,  exiles  and  runaway  slaves.  As  the  neighbor- 
ing people  refused  to  give  their  daughters  as  wives  to  his  colonists, 
he  allured  them  by  games  and  abducted  them.  The  Sabines  avenged 
this  outrage  with  their  arms,  a  battle  ensued,  but  tlie  newly  married 
wives  prostrated  themselves  suppliantly  between  the  combatants  and 
mediated  peace.  The  Sabini  (Quirites)  then  settled  in  Rome,  and 
Titus  Tatius,  their  commander,  became  regent  with  Romulus,  each 
community  retaining  its  own  senate.  Romulus  governed  jointly 
with  the  senate  and  the  people,  but  his  ambition  caused  him  to  en- 
large his  power  more  and  more.  He  killed  not  only  his  colleague 
Tatius,  but  also  his  brother,  and  at  last  he  was  himself  dispatched 
by  the  senators.  After  the  reign  of  Romulus  six  kings  are  said 
to  have  governed  Rome  for  245  years. 

Numa  Pompilius  gave  Rome  its  State  religion,  built  temples,  and 
regulated  the  divine  service.  He  always  kept  peace  with  the  neigh- 
boring people,  and  promoted  agriculture.     Servius  Tullius,  the  son  of 

What  colony  settled  on  the  Tiber  ?  From  whom  did  the  Latini  receive  their 
name  ?  What  of  i^neas  ?  What  town  was  the  capital  of  Latium  ?  What  is 
said  of  Romulus  and  Remus?  Of  the  first  settlers  in  Rome  ?  How  did  they 
obtain  wives  ?  How  were  the  Sabini  reconciled  ?  Why  was  Romulus  killed  ? 
By  whom  ?     What  of  Numa  Pompilius  ?     Of  Servius  Tullius  ? 


17 

a  female  slave,  ameliorated  the  hard  condition  of  the  slaves,  provided 
for  a  more  convenient  classification  of  the  citizens,  and  is  reported 
to  have  entertained  the  idea  of  abolishing  royalty.  He  was  murdered 
in  a  conspiracy  which  was  headed  by  his  son-in-law,  Tarquinius, 
and  his  own  daughter  Tullia,  wife  of  Tarquinius  (533  B.  C.)  The 
unnatural  daughter  drove  over  the  corpse  of  her  father.  The 
street  in  which  this  crime  was  committed  received  the  name  of  the 
"nefarious." 

Tarquin,  called  the  Proud,  was  very  cruel  while  he  was  king.  He 
put  his  adversaries  to  death ;  he  did  not  even  spare  the  life  of  his 
brother-in-law.  Junius  Brutus,  the  son  of  the  murdered  man,  could 
only  protect  himself  against  the  rage  of  his  uncle  by  feigning  to  be 
insane.  Liberty  was  also  greatly  oppressed  by  the  king.  He  gov- 
erned without  the  senate  and  community,  and  forbade  popular 
meetings,  the  last  remedy  of  the  people  against  his  willfulness.  A 
numerous  body-guard  of  strangers  had  to  watch  for  the  safety  of 
the  tyrant.  The  Romans,  for  a  long  time,  bore  this  despotism  in 
silence ;  but  when  a  son  of  Tarquinius  did  violence  to  Lucretia,  a 
virtuous,  highly-esteemed  Roman  lady,  and  she,  unable* to  bear 
her  dishonor,  plunged  a  dagger  into  her  bosom,  the  patricians,  who 
bitterly  hated  the  unlimited  dominion  of  the  king,  made  use  of  this 
favorable  opportunity  to  break  the  chains  which  enslaved  the 
country.  They  instantly  locked  the  city  gates.  Brutus  showed 
the  people  the  bloody  corpse  of  Lucretia,  represented  the  crimes  of 
the  king  and  his  family,  and  reminded  the  people  of  all  the  wrong 
and  disgrace  they  had  suffered.  His*  eloquence  roused  the  cour- 
age of  the  senators,  and  the  people  awoke  from  their  torpid  con- 
dition. A  sentence  of  perpetual  banishment  was  pronounced  against 
Tarquinius  (who  happened  to  be  absent  from  Rome),  and  against 
his  family.  Every  one  who  would  do  or  speak  anything  for  the  king's 
advantage,  was  to  be  adjudged  guilty  of  death,  and  Rome  was  de- 
clared a  republic,  at  the  head  of  which  two  consuls  were  to  govern 
(509  B.  C.)  As  Tarquinius,  informed  of  this  event,  hastened  to 
Rome,  he  found  the  gates  locked.  Meanwhile  Brutus,  in  the  Roman 
camp,  urged  the  army  to  revolt  against  the  king,  and  when  Tar- 
quinius returned,  he  found  the  soldiers  also  hostile  to  him.  He 
went  to  his  son,  who  was  reigning  in  Gabii.  The  first  consuls 
were  Brutus  and  Collatinus,  Lucretia's  husband. 

What  is  said  of  Tarquinius  and  his  wife?  How  did  Tarquinius  govern  the 
Romans  ?  What  of  Brutus  ?  Narrate  the  death  of  Lucretia  ?  What  conse- 
quences did  it  cause  for  Tarquinius  and  his  family  ?  'How  did  Brutus  behave 
at  this  event  ?     Who  were  the  first  consuls  of  Rome  ? 

(2) 


18 
SEOOro   OHAPTER-HISTORY  OP  CIVILIZATION, 


gl2.    Legislation.     Constitutions  of  Lyeurgus  and  Solon. 
Constitution  of  Rome  under  the  Kings. 

The  Egyptians,  probably,  had  the  most  ancient  among  all  known 
constitutions.  They  were  divided  into  four  or  six  castes  (immutable, 
hereditary  classes).  Every  one  had  to  stay  in  the  caste  in  which  he 
was  born,  and  to  carry  on  the  trade  of  his  father.  The  most  re- 
spectable was  the  caste  of  priests,  and  the  most  despised  that  of  herds- 
men. The  priests  dictated  to  the  kings  how  they  should  act,  and 
judged  them  after  their  death.  They  administered  the  highest  offices, 
educated  the  youth,  wrote  the  history  of  their  country,  and  were 
at  the  same  time  judges,  physicians,  architects ;  in  short,  the 
possessors  of  all  scientific  knowledge.  The  priests  and  the  soldiers 
were  the  owners  of  all,  or  at  least  most  of  the  land. 

A  similar  system  of  castes  was  also  established  in  many  oriental 
regions,  e.  g.,  in  Media,  Persia,  Bactria,  and  especially  in  India,  where, 
even  in  ancient  times,  the  Brahmins,  that  is,  those  who  had  issued 
from  the  head  of  the  god  Brahma,  enjoyed  almost  divine  honor. 
History  is  silent  concerning  the  oldest  constitution  of  China,  but 
considering  the  constant  uniformity  of  the  culture  of  the  Chinese 
we  can  assume,  nearly  with  certainty,  that  it  was  more  or  less  similar 
to  the  present  one — a  constitution,  according  to  which  the  emperor 
is  held  to  be  God's  vicegerent  on  earth,  is  high-priest  and  family-head 
of  the  empire,  and  requires  servile  obedience  from  the  inhabitants 
of  the  realm. 

The  constitution  of  the  ancient  Plebrews  was  also  very  similar  to 
the  Egyptian.  The  priests  governed  them,  though  in  Jehovah's 
name,  and  their  preponderating  influence  was  felt  even  under  the 
kings.  They  took,  besides  other  revenues,  the  tithe  of-  all  the 
products  of  the  soil.  The  least  trespass  against  civil  law,  and  the 
smallest  profanation  of  the  Sabbath,  were  punished  by  death.  Every 
seventh  year  (sabbatical  year)  the  people  were  compelled  to  leave 
their  fields  unplowed,  and  everything  that  grew  spontaneously 
belonged  to  the  poor  and  the  stranger ;  the  native  slaves  were  manu- 

^12.  Give  the  outlines  of  the  constitution  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  ?  What  of 
their  castes  ?  Of  their  kings,  soldiers,  priests  ?  What  form  of  constitutions 
had  the  oriental  regions,  especially  India  and  China  ?  Describe  the  constitution 
of  the  ancient  Hebrews  ?     What  of  sabbatical  years  ? 


19 

mitted  and  all  debts  remitted.  Every  fiftieth  year  was  a  jubilee,  in 
which  every  family  recovered  its  real  property. 

The  two  most  celebrated  constitutions  of  antiquity  were  the 
Spartan  and  the  Athenian.  Lycurgus,  to  quicken  the  warlike  spirit 
of  the  people,  re-established  the  ancient  Dorian  statutes  of  his  native 
town.  The  legislative  power  was  held  only  by  Spartans  proper  (the 
descendants  of  the  victorious  Dores).  The  Lacedsemonii  (the  de- 
scendants of  the  vanquished  Achsei),  had  no  share  in  the  public 
government,  but  otherwise  they  lived  unrestrained.  The  senate 
(council  of  the  aged)  prepared  the  transactions.  The  two  kings  were 
the  executors  of  the  laws,  presiding  members  of  the  religion,  and 
generals  of  the  army.  Five  ephori  administered  the  high  offices, 
presided  in  the  senate  and  at  the  meetings  of  the  community,  and 
were  the  judges  of  the  kings,  etc. 

The  principal  source  of  disorder  in  the  Spartan  state  was  the 
disproportionate  distribution  of  property  among  the  citizens.  Lycur- 
gus, therefore,  divided  the  lands  into  equal  parts,  and  forbade  the 
proprietors  from  selling  their  estates.  The  Helots  (descendants  of 
the  town  of  Helos,  which  the  Spartans  had  conquered,  and  other 
vanquished  people),  were  obHged  to  cultivate  the  estates  of  the  Dorii, 
and  to  deliver  to  the  latter  a  certain  proportion  of  wheat,  wine, 
etc.,  etc.  They  also  attended  to  the  handiwork.  The  money  was 
made  of  iron,  in  order  not  to  tempt  the  people  to  greediness.  The 
dwellings  and  clothing  were  of  the  simplest  nature,  and  the  meals  of 
the  men  were  taken  in  common.  The  black  broth,  a  national  dish 
of  the  Spartans,  was  notorious  abroad.  A  king,  who  had  heard  a 
great  deal  of  talk  about  it,  once  engaged  a  Spartan  cook  to  prepare 
it  for  him,  but  found  the  dish  unsavory.  "  I  can  easily  believe  it," 
remarked  the  cook ;  "  our  soup  tastes  well  only  to  those  who  have 
bathed  in  the  Eurotas."  Sparta  had  no  walls,  as  the  valor  of  the  in- 
habitants was  relied  on  to  defend  the  city.  Bravery  was  rewarded 
with  honor,  and  cowardliness  punished  by  scoff  and  exclusion  from 
offices  of  honor. 

The  children  were  educated  for  the  State ;  sickly  ones,  immediately 
after  birth,  were  thrown  into  an  abyss  of  Mount  Taygetus  by  special 

What  is  said  of  the  Jubilee  ?  Which  were  the  two  most  celebrated  constitu- 
tions of  antiquity?  Delineate  the  constitution  of  Sparta.  Functions  of  the 
senate  ?  Of  the  kings  ?  Of  the  ephori  ?  What  of  the  division  of  lands  ? 
Who  cultivated  them  ?  What  was  money  made  of  ?  What  about  dwellings  and 
clothing  ?  Meals  ?  How  was  bravery  rewarded  and  cowardliness  punished  ? 
How  were  the  boys  and  girls  educated  ?     What  was  the  fate  of  sickly  infants  ? 


20 

officers.  From  the  commencement  of  the  seventh  year  the  educa- 
tion was  public.  All  the  boys  of  the  city,  divided  into  certain  classes, 
lived  under  the  control  of  particular  inspectors,  who  were  appointed 
by  the  State.  The  young  boys  were  obliged  to  sleep  on  rushes,  and 
were  instructed  in  the  arts  of  running,  wrestling,  throwing,  fencing 
and  swimming.  The  girls,  too,  were  trained  in  such  exercises,  as  they 
would  tend  to  develop  them  into  healthy,  strong  women.  At  table, 
all  received  only  moderate  portions.  In  order  to  harden  the  boys 
against  pain,  they  were  sometimes  flogged  until  bloody,  and  even  to 
death,  at  the  altar  of  Diana.  Some,  in  order  to  show  their  con- 
stancy, permitted  themselves  to  be  flogged  until  they  dropped  dead, 
without  even  uttering  a  word  of  complaint ;  they  were  also  taught 
to  give  short  and  pertinent  answers  (laconic  sayings  became  pro- 
verbial), and  to  respect  old  age.  The  arts  and  sciences  were  despised 
by  the  Spartans ;  they  were  even  forbidden  to  cultivate  them.  They 
only  learned  penmanship,  so  far  as  it  was  necessary,  and  sacred  and 
warUke  airs,  which  were  sung  at  festivals  and  before  battles.  Under 
such  a  constitution  the  Spartans  became  a  valiant,  powerful  and 
liberty-loving  people ;  but  they  were,  nevertheless,  also  superstitious, 
rude,  and  very  often  cruel. 

The  milder,  and  in  general  the  best  legislation  of  the  ancient 
world,  was  that  of  Solon.  In  Athens,  the  citizens  collectively 
wielded  the  supreme  power.  They  confirmed  ah  laws,  resolved 
on  war  or  peace,  and  voted  for  the  offices.  The  senate  took  care  of 
current  affairs,  presided  over  the  meetings  of  the  community,  and 
reported  their  bills  to  them.  The  areopagus  was  not  only  the  judge 
of  capital  crimes,  but  also  superintended  the  religion  of  the  State, 
the  education  of  the  youth,  and  the  laws  and  pubhc  morals.  Its 
judiciary  sessions  were  held  at  night,  and  in  darkness.  Solon  com- 
pared these  two  courts  with  two  anchors  —  as  they  firmly  controlled 
the  agitated  and  turbulent  State.  The  meetings  of  the  people  were  to 
be  checked  by  them.  He  prescribed  also  the  duties  of  married  people, 
parents  and  children.  The  children  of  the  warriors  who  were 
killed  in  the  military  service  were  educated  at  the  expense  of  the 
State.  Whoever  offended  a  slave  could  be  sued  at  law,  and  no  one 
was  permitted  to  strike  a  slave.  For  that  reason  it  was  proverbially 
said  that  the  slaves  in  Athens  were  more  independent  than  free  men 

What  about  the  flogging  of  boys?  What  is  the  meaning  of  a  "laconic 
answer"?  What  were  the  effects  of  the  laws  of  Lycurgus?  What  rights  had 
the  citizens  in  Athens  f  The  senate  ?  The  areopagus  ?  Who  provided  for  the 
chldreu  of  the    warriors  ?      How   were   slaves   treated  ? 


21 

in  many  other  States.  Solon's  penalties  were  moderate.  He  pun- 
ished idleness,  the  principal  source  of  impoverishment,  and  of  all  the 
vices  in  the  State,  severely,  considering  it  a  great  offence.  He  desired 
that  his  laws  should  not  be  valid  longer  than  loo  years  Later,  the 
law  of  expulsion  (ostracism)  was  introduced,  by  which  any  citizen  who 
by  his  power,  authority  or  even  by  his  public  merits,  seemed  to  be 
dangerous  to  the  political  equahty,  could  be  banished  for  ten  years. 
The  ground- work  of  the  Roman  constitution  under  the  kings  was 
this  :  Under  Romulus,  the  citizens  of  Rome  were  formed  into  two 
tribes  (tribus,  communities),  the  Latine  and  the.  Sabinian.  Later 
still,  a  third  tribe  of  the  Tuscan  race  was  added  to  these.  Each 
tribe  was  divided  into  ten  curiae,  and  represented  by  loo  senators, 
who  were  distinguished  by  age  and  intelligence.  The  senate  possessed 
the  greatest  part  of  the  governmental  power  ;  but,  in  important  mat- 
ters, the  curias  (comitia  curiata),  that  is,  all  members  of  the  three 
tribes,  decided  what  was  best  to  be  done.  The  legislative  power,  es- 
pecially, was  vested  in  them.  The  executive  power  and  the  command 
in  war  was  left  to  the  king.  The  members  of  the  three  tribes  were 
called  patricians  (noblemen).  At  first  the  patricians  alone  pos- 
sessed, not  only  the  political  power,  but  also  the  conquered  lands. 
They  had  clients^  that  is,  hereditary  tenants,  to  whom  they  left  the 
usufruct  of  land,  and  gave  assistance  if  they  went  to  law ;  therefore 
they  were  called  their  patrons.  Foreigners  who  had  obtained  the 
rights  of  citizenship  were  called  plebeians.  These  were  partly  immi- 
grants of  a  later  time,  and  partly  inhabitants  of  the  conquered  ter- 
ritory, and  embraced  not  only  common  people,  but  also  the  noble- 
men of  the  conquered  cities.  Among  them  were  farmers,  husband- 
men, rich  men  and  poor  men.  They  were  otherwise  free,  but  were 
deprived  of  the  right  of  suffrage.  Tarquinius  Priscus  added  to  every 
tribe  of  patricians  a  tribe  of  plebeians,  which  he  formed  from  the 
richest  and  most  distinguished  plebeians.  Servius  TuUius,  for  the 
sake  of  taking  a  census,  divided  all  citizens  into  six  classes  and  193 
centuriae.  To  the  first  class  belonged  the  richest ;  to  the  two  last 
classes,  the  poorest  citizens  (proletarians).  The  former  numbered 
ninety-eight  centuriae,  the  last  only  one.     When  they  voted  in  cen- 

What  were  Solon's  penalties  ?  What  vice  did  he  punish  severely  ?  Why  ? 
What  is  the  meaning  of  "ostracism"?  Why  was  ostracism  introduced? 
What  was  the  ground- work  of  the  Roman  constitution  ?  What  was  the  power 
of  the  senate;  of  the  kings;  of  the  curioe?  Explain  the  terms  "patricians," 
"plebeians,"  "patrons"  and  "clients  "?  Into  what  classes  did  Servius  TuHius, 
divide  all  citizens  ?     Which  got  the  advantage  by  this  division  ?     Why  ? 


22 

turise  (comitia  centuriata),  the  plebeians  could,  according  to  this 
division,  be  easily  outvoted  by  the  patricians.  The  lowest  class  was 
exempt  from  military  service,  and,  as  a  rule,  did  not  pay  any  taxes. 
Servius,  besides,  divided  the  plebeians,  according  to  their  residence, 
into  four  municipal  and  twenty-six  rural  wards,  which  also  were 
called  tribus. 

§  13.     Religions.    Zoroaster.     Buddha.     Kong-fut-se. 
Grecian  and  Roman  Religions. 

The  oldest  form  of  religion  probably  was  fetichism,  which  was 
the  worship  of  natural  objects.  It  was  expected  by  the  worshipers 
that  these  objects  would  keep  pain  and  suffering  from  them,  and 
bring  them  fortune  and  happiness.  There  were  two  kinds  of  fetich- 
ism, viz.,  the  worship  of  animals,  e.  g.,  in  Egypt;  and  the  wor- 
ship of  stars,  <?.  g.f  in  Arabia.  Men  also,  particularly  in  Greece  and 
Rome,  were  often  idolized,  either  by  gratitude  or  by  base  flattery. 
The  deity  was  humanized  in  all  religions,  by  attributing  to  it  both 
the  good  qualities  and  the  frailties,  often  even  vices  of  men. 

The  priests  conserved  and  enlarged  the  religious  knowledge  of 
the  nations;  but  they  also  propagated  and  fostered  superstition, 
enthralled  the  conscience,  indulged  in  the  desire  of  domineering, 
and  usurped  the  civil  authority.  They  interpreted  the  future,  espe- 
cially in  Greece  and  in  the  Roman  empire,  by  observing  the  intes- 
tines of  sacrificed  animals,  and  the  flight  of  birds,  and  by  oracles. 
For  money,  they  permitted  the  oracles  to  answer  according  to  the 
wishes  of  the  questioners.  The  greater  part  of  the  answers  of  the 
oracles  were  equivocal.  These  practices,  however,  contributed  to 
soften  the  habits  and  manners  of  the  people,  and  sometimes  pre- 
vented bloody  wars. 

Sacrifices  of  fruits,  animals  and  men  were  established  almost 
everywhere.  The  better  educated  portion  of  civil  society,  indeed, 
had  a  purer  religion,  but,  from  fear  of  the  populace,  it  was  practiced 
and  propagated  only  in  secret,  especially  in  the  mysteries  (secret 
meetings),  where  a  higher  religious  doctrine  was  reserved  and  com- 
municated to  the  initiated  members. 

The  two  principal  deities  of  the  Egyptians  were  Osiris  and  Isis ; 

From  what  was  the  lowest  class  exempted  ?  ^  13.  Which  is  the  oldest  form 
of  religion  ?  Give  examples  of  fetichism.  In  what  countries  were  men  often 
idolized  ?  What  is  said  of  priests  ?  Especially  in  Rome  and  Greece  ?  What  of 
oracles  ?  Of  sacrifices  ?  Of  mysteries  ?  What  were  the  principal  deities  of 
the  Egyptians  ? 


23 

the  former  probably  meant  the  sun ;  the  latter,  the  moon,  or  nature 
in  general.  Isis  presided  over  agriculture.  The  Egyptians  also 
worshiped  many  animals,  among  them  the  useful  bull,  especially 
the  Aphis,  in  the  city  of  Memphis,  the  stork-like  bird  ibis,  which 
destroys  serpents,  the  dangerous  crocodile,  cats,  etc.  The  Egyp- 
tians believed  in  the  transmigration  of  the  soul.  This  superstition 
probably  was  the  reason  why  they  embalmed  their  dead,  which, 
with  fillets  tied  around  them,  were  carefully  preserved  in  subter- 
ranean apartments.  There  these  mummies  (as  they  are  called), 
remained  undisturbed  for  thousands  of  years. 

There  also  were  oracles  in  Egypt.  The  most  ancient  existed  in 
Meroe.  Particular  priestesses  were  appointed  for  the  oracles  in  the 
temples  of  Osiris  and  Isis,  where  they  slept,  and  in  their  dreams 
learned  the  will  of  the  deity.  Even  the  sacred  bull  in  Memphis 
promulgated  oracles. — The  religion  of  the  Chaldeans  and  Babylo- 
nians was  similar  to  the  Egyptians. 

Among  the  Arians  and  Bactrians  (in  Media  and  Persia),  the 
maga  Zoroaster  was  prominent  as  a  legislator  and  religious  reformer. 
In  later  times,  when  these  were  subjugated  by  the  Persians,  the 
latter  also  accepted  his  doctrine.  His  followers  believed  him  to  be 
the  author  of  the  Zend-Avesta  ("  the  living  word,")  which  is  writ- 
ten in  the  Zend  language.  According  to  the  doctrine  contained  in 
this  book,  the  eternal,  uncreated  universe  is  the  primitive  fountain 
of  all  things.  It  created  two  other  divine  beings,  a  good  and  a  bad 
one,  or  the  god  of  light  and  the  god  of  darkness,  Ormuzd  and 
Arihman.     The  priests  were  called  magi. 

The  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos,  the  Vedas  ("knowledge,") 
are  written  in  the  ancient  Sanscrit  language,  which  is  now  dead. 
According  to  these  books,  Bram  (primitively  self-existent),  is  the  foun- 
dation of  all  existence,  from  whom  emanated  three  gods:  Brah- 
ma (the  sun),  Vishnu  (the  air  and  water),  andSivah  (the  fire).  Brah- 
ma is  the  creator,  Vishnu  the  conservator,  and  Sivah  the  de- 
stroyer of  the  world.  Vishnu  is  said  to  have  often  descended  to 
the  world  to  set  it  right.  Several  sects  emanated  from  the  adora- 
tion of  one  of  the  three  divinities,  which  at  various  times  combated 
each  other.     Besides,  the  Vedas  command  was  to  worship  the  gods 

What  of  their  worship  of  animals  ?  Of  their  belief  in  transmigration  of  the 
soul?  Why  did  they  embalm  their  dead  ?  What  are  mummies  ?  What  of  the- 
oracles  of  the  Egyptians  ?  Who  was  legislator  and  religious  reformer  of  the 
Arians  and  Bactrians  ?  Give  some  of  Zoroaster's  doctrines.  What  is  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word  "Zend-Avesta"?  What  are  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos 
called  ?     In  what  language  are  they  written  ? 


24 

by  sacrifices  and  alms,  to  bathe,  to  atone  for  sins,  to  mortify  ourselves, 
to  fast,  and  to  go  on  pilgrimages.  There  were  also,  in  olden  times,  a 
class  of  monks  (Fakirs)  who  endeavored  to  sanctify  themselves  by  cruel 
mortification.  The  horrible  custom  of  the  wives  of  the  Brahmins, 
to  burn  themselves  after  the  death  of  their  husbands,  is  also  very  old 
and  not  yet  entirely  abolished. 

Yet  another  religion,  Buddhism  (Lamaism),  was  instituted  in 
India  (about  500  B.  C.)  Its  founder  received  the  surname  of  Bud- 
dah  (the  wise)  and  Gautamas  (the  saint),  from  its  confessors.  They 
believed  that  the  high-priest  (Delai-Lama)  is  his  representative,  in 
whom  his  soul  is  incarnate.  Their  priests  (bonzes)  live  together 
in  convents.  Gautamas  himself  ordered  his  followers  to  lead  a 
moral  life.  The  religion  of  the  Chinese  was  reformed  by  Kong-fu- 
tse,  (about  600  B.  C.)  His  religion,  of  which  the  well  educated 
Chinese  are  adherents,  proclaims  many  excellent  maxims,  viz. : 
"  First  rule  yourself,  then  you  are  fit  to  rule  a  family,  then  a  coun- 
try."" "  Wise  is  the  man  who  has  a  profound  knowledge  of  things, 
submits  to  reason  and  follows  the  path  of  virtue  and  justice.  He 
is  his  own  impeacher,  witness  and  judge."  "Do  to  another  what 
you  would  he  should  do  unto  you ;  and  do  not  unto  another  what 
you  would  not  be  done  unto.  This  law  is  the  foundation  and  prin- 
ciple of  all  the  rest." 

The  ten  commandments,  familiar  to  all,  is  the  ground-work  of  the 
Mosaic  (Jewish)  reHgion.  According  to  these,  God  is  the  supreme  Be- 
ing, who  created  and  arranged  the  universe  in  six  days,  and  who  must 
not  be  represented  by  any  image.  His  name  is  Jehovah,  that  is,  the 
Being  which  has  been,  is,  and  will  be.  He  is  the  national  god  of 
the  Jews,  and  their  Lord — a  god  of  vengeance,  who  punishes  the  sins 
of  the  fathers  even  to  the  fifth  generation,  and  to  whom  man  ought 
to  sacrifice  everything,  even  his  children,  as  Abraham,  resignedly,  was 
about  to  do.  The  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  human  spirit 
was  unknown  to  the  Hebrews  before  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
They  learned  it  then.  The  Jewish  religion  has  a  great  number  of 
ceremonies  and  holydays.  The  weekly  holyday  was  the  Sabbath. 
There  were  three  other  and  longer  holy  periods,  of  which  the  Easter 
festival  was  the  most  important,  and  it  lasted  seven  days.     By  the 

Give  the  outline  of  their  contents.  What  did  the  Vedas  command  ?  What 
of  the  Fakirs  and  of  the  custom  observed  by  the  widows  of  the  Brahmins  ? 
What  other  religion  was  instituted  in  India  ?  Who  reformed  the  religion  of  the 
Chinese  ?  Quote  some  of  its  maxims.  What  is  the  groundwork  of  the  Mosaic 
religion  ?     What  of  its  ceremonies  and  festivals  ? 


25 

moral  law,  the  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  commit  thett,  murder, 
perjury,  etc.  Moses  also  established  sanitary  laws,  viz.,  ablutions  of 
the  body,  and  abstinence  from  the  use  of  pork.  The  first  aimed  at 
cleanliness ;  as  to  pork,  that  was,  perhaps,  unwholesome  in  that  hot 
country.  In  later  times,  this  religion  was  enlarged  by  many  addi- 
tions, such  as  the  doctrine  of  a  devil,  of  angels,  etc.  It  resembles, 
in  many  respects,  that  of  the  Egyptians. 

The  Greeks  idolized  all  the  forces  of  nature.  Jupiter,  to  them, 
was  the  god  of  air  and  light,  and  also  of  life ;  therefore  they  called 
him  father  of  the  gods  and  men.  Apollo  was  the  god  of  music  and 
poetry ;  Minerva,  the  goddess  of  wisdom ;  Venus,  the  goddess  of 
beauty  and  love;  Mars,  the  god  of  war;  Juno,  Jupiter's  spouse, 
presided  over  wedlock ;  Vulcan,  over  fire ;  Neptune,  over  the  ocean  ; 
Pluto  ruled  in  Tartarus.  Besides  these  there  were  many  lesser  gods 
and  semi-gods.  Pan  was  the  god  of  shepherds  ;  Pomona,  the  god- 
dess of  fruit ;  Ceres,  the  goddess  of  grains ;  Flora,  the  goddess  of 
flowers.  Every  fountain  and  tree  was  protected  by  a  deity,  the 
nymphs  and  the  dryads.  The  Muses  presided  over  song  and  other 
arts ;  and  the  Graces  dispensed  charms.  But  all  gods,  even  Jupi- 
ter, were  subjected  to  immutable  Fate.  The  shadows  of  tl^e  dead 
descended  into  the  nether  world  (Orcus),  where  they  were  judged. 
The  good  were  happy  in  the  Elysian  fields,  but  the  wicked  sufiered 
diflbrent  torments  in  Tartarus.  Mythology  was  further  developed 
by  the  poets,  who  ingeniously  applied  it  to  their  works. 

The  Roman  religion  resembled  that  of  the  Greeks,  and  was 
established  by  King  Numa  Pompilius,  who  called  it  a  revelation  of 
the  nymph  Egeria.  The  Romans  also  idolized  abstract  ideas  and 
moral  qualities  of  man,  viz.,  they  had  a  goddess  of  liberty,  of 
honor,  of  victory,  of  chastity,  of  patriotism,  etc.  They  also  con- 
sidered rehgion  as  a  fulcrum  of  the  State,  and  therefore  it  was  freely 
used  as  the  handmaid  of  politics,  in  order  to  lead  the  superstitious 
people.  The  sacerdotal  offices  were  State  offices.  Particular  priests 
watched  the  flight  of  birds,  the  lightning,  and  the  intestines  of  ani- 
mals. The  State  affairs  were  conducted  according  to  their  interpre- 
tation. The  virgins  of  Vesta  watched  the  eternal  fire ;  they  were 
not   allowed   to  marry  during   the  term  of  their  service.     Human  ■ 

What  sanitary  laws  did  Moses  establish  ?  How  was  this  religion  enlarged 
in  later  times  ?  Name  the  principal  Grecian  deities  ?  What  do  the  te?:ms 
"Orcus,"  "Elysian  fields"  and  "Tartarus"  signify?  Who  established  the 
Roman  religion  ?  How  did  it  influence  politics  ?  What  office  had  the  virgins  of 
Vesta  ?     What  of  human  sacrifices  in  Rome  ? 


26 

sacrifices  were  also  sometimes  offered.    After  the  disastrous  battle  at 
Cannae  (216  B.  C),  several  persons  were  burned  alive  in  Rome. 

In  general,  both  the  Romans  and  the  Greeks  were  very  super- 
stitious. If  a  public  meeting  took  place,  and  during  its  session  a 
weasel  ran  over  the  road,  the  meeting  was  adjourned.  Particular 
soothsayers  were  appointed  by  the  authorities,  in  order  to  call  the 
dead  from  Orcus.  The  crime  of  sacrilege  was  punished  with  death ; 
this  penalty  was  inflicted  even  for  pulling  up  a  shrub  in  a  sacred 
grove.  Philosophy  was  often  at  war  with  religion ;  philosophers 
who  doubted  the  existence  of  the  gods  were  put  to  death.  Thus 
perished  Socrates ;  Anaxagoras  had  to  flee  from  Athens ;  so  had 
Diagoras,  for  whose  head  a  prize  was  offered. 

^  14.    Arts  and  Sciences.     Buildings  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Greeks.     Pyramids.     Homer. 

The  arts  and  sciences  were  first  cultivated  in  the  Orient,  but 
owing  to  the  political  and  priestly  despotism  which  oppressed  the 
nations,  they  never  attained  a  high  degree  of  perfection  there.  The 
most  ancient  writing  was  a  kind  of  painting.  Later,  the  hiero- 
glyphs (sacred  signs)  were  invented,  by  painting  or  drawing  only  a 
part  ins1:ead  of  the  whole,  and  representing  abstract  objects  in  a  sen- 
sual manner.  In  this  way  an  eye  stood  for  sight ;  an  open  hand,  for 
benevolence  ;  a  scaling-ladder,  for  the  siege  of  a  town.  Other  hier- 
oglyphs designated  single  sounds,  and  represented  letters.  The 
hieroglyphs  proper  were  used  by  the  Egyptian  priests.  From 
the  hieroglyphs  writing  by  words  originated.  This  kind  of  writing 
was  used  by  the  Chinese.  Finally,  writing  by  letters  was  also  in- 
vented, which,  with  few  signs,  represents  the  principal  sounds,  and 
joins  them  into  words.  The  inventors  of  letters  were  probably  the 
Phoenicians;  it  is,  at  least,  certain  that  they  brought  them  to 
Europe.  The  ancients  used  to  write  on  linen,  parchment,  tablets 
which  were  covered  with  wax,  on  Egyptian  paper,  etc.  The  last 
was  prepared  from  the  root  of  a  plant  called  Papyrus,  which  grew 
in  abundance  by  the  river  Nile. 

In  Egypt,  high  pyramids  and  obelisks  and  majestic  temples  and 
palaces  were  .built.  The  pyramids,  about  forty  of  which  still  stand  in 

What  of  the  superstition  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ?  Examples.  Fate  of 
Socrates  and  other  philosophers.  ^  14.  In  what  countries  were  the  sciences  and 
arts  first  cultivated  ?  What  was  the  most  ancient  form  of  writing  ?  What  are 
hieroglyphs  ?  Who  probably  invented  the  letters  ?  On  what  materials  did  the 
ancients  write  ?  Describe  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  and  the  pyramid  of  Cheops. 
For  what  purpose  were  they  constructed  ? 


27 

central  Egypt,  were  quadrilateral,  getting  narrower  towards  the  top, 
built  on  hills,  without  doors,  furnished  with  secret  passages,  vaults 
and  chambers.  The  stones  were  laid  over  one  another,  without 
mortar,  and  were  held  together  by  their  weight.  One  of.  the  extant 
pyramids  (the  pyramid  of  Cheops)  is  468  feet  high,  and  stands  on 
a  hill  200  feet  in  height.  It  can  be  mounted  by  graduated  steps. 
With  the  material  used  in  this  pyramid  a  wall  could  be  built  around 
the  whole  kingdom  of  Spain.  One  hundred  thousand  men  are  said 
to  have  been  employed  in  its  construction  for  twenty  years.  These 
gigantic  edifices  were  probably  designed  to  be  the  tombs  of  the 
kings,  but  others  think  that  they  were  only  built  by  them  for 
show.  The  obelisks  were  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  and 
consisted  of  a  single  stone  of  the  hardest  granite,  which  was  finely 
polished.  Some  were  transported  by  the  Roman  emperors  to  Rome, 
where  they  yet  stand,  and  one  (Cleopatra's  needle)  w^as  removed  to 
New  York  to  decorate  Central  Park  (1883). 

It  is  said  that  the  immense  Labyrinth  at  the  Lake  of  Moeris 
consisted  of  twelve  covered  yards,  and  contained  1 500  apartments 
above,  and  as  many  under  the  earth.  This  artificial  lake  was 
destined  to  receive  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  and  to  regulate  its  useful 
inundations.-  In  the  middle  of  it  two  pyramids  rose.  King  Moeris 
either  ordered  it  dug  or  had  the  flood-gates  built  which  connected  it 
with  the  Nile.  It  was  of  the  highest  importance  to  Egypt.  The 
structures  in  Upper  Egypt  were  still  grander ;  the  remains  still  found 
there  are  older  than  3,000  years.  Those  of  Thebes  most  excel  among 
them.  The  plain  where  this  enormous  city  of  one  hundred  gates 
was  situated,  is  covered  with  its  ruins — temples,  palaces,  colonnades, 
obelisks,  colossi,  sphinxes  and  subterranean  tombs.  There  are  sev- 
eral alleys,  decorated  with  from  two  hundred  to  six  hundred  colos- 
sal sphinxes.  One  of  the  palaces  is  of  almost  immeasurable  mag- 
nitude. A  large  portico  forms  the  vestibule  of  a  covered  hall,  the 
roof  of  which  is  supported  by  134  columns;  every  column  of  the 
two  middle  rows  is  sixty-five  feet  high  and  thirty  feet  wide.  More- 
over, there  are  the  royal  tombs  (as  they  are  called),  built  under 
ground,  more  than  three  miles  long,  with  many  labyrinths,  chambers 
and  halls.  The  walls,  along  which  mummies  are  piled  up,  are 
adorned  with  relieves  and  paintings  in  fresco,  preserved  with  won- 
derful freshness,  which  represent,  in  part,  rural  occupations,  chases, 

What  of  the  obelisks  ?     Of  Cleopatra's  needle  ?     What  of  the  Labyrinth  ? 
Of  the  Lake  of  Moeris  ?     Of  the  monuments  of  Thebes  ?     Of  the  royal  tombs  ? 


28 

navigation,  festivals  ;  in  part,  animals,  tools,  etc.;  in  part  land  and 
sea  fights.  All  these  monuments  of  sculpture  and  painting,  how- 
ever, were  far  behind  the  Grecian  works  of  art  in  accomplishment. 

The  Indian  monuments  of  art,  constructed  in  very  ancient  time, 
are  also  remarkable.  These  consist  of  temples,  grottos  and  pyra- 
mids, partly  under  ground,  partly  above  it,  cut  in  rocks.  The 
grottos  of  Ellora  (in  the  central  part  of  Hindostan)  occupy  over  two 
miles  in  the  inside  of  a  mountain.  In  the  pagod  (temple)  of  Cha- 
lambron,  there  is  a  sanctuary  with  a  portico  three  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  in  length,  and  two  hundred  and  sixty  in  width.  Nearly  one 
thousand  columns,  each  thirty  feet  high,  support  the  level  roof. 

The  city  of  Babylon  was  renowned  for  its  hundred  gates  and 
enormous  walls,  for  the  bridge  leading  over  the  Euphrat,  for  the  sus- 
pended gardens  (/.  e.^  planted  on  terrasses  which  were  supported 
by  high  "arches),  for  the  temple  of  Belus,  and  other  wonders  of  ar- 
chitecture. Either  Semiramis  or  Nebuchadnezzar  are  reported  to 
have  built  them. 

In  China,  Tshing-wang  (247-210  B.  C.)  is  said  to  have  con- 
nected and  finished  the  walls  which  different  princes  had  erected 
against  the  incursions  of  the  northern  enemies.  This  was  the  ori- 
gin of  the  great  Chinese  wall  of  one  thousand  five  hundred  miles  in 
length,  and  which  is  fortified  by  towers. 

In  Rome,  Tarquinius  Priscus  and  his  successors  built  the  gigan- 
tic sinks  (subterranean  canals),  which  carried  off  the  filthy  water 
from  the  lower  parts  of  the  city ;  the  citadel,  called  capitol,  with 
the  threefold  temple  of  Jupiter,  Juno  and  Minerva,  and  the  Circus 
Maximus,  designed  for  prize-fighting. 

Poesy,  too,  first  flourished  in  the  Orient.  The  Indian  poetry 
attracts  by  a  peculiar  tenderness  of  feeling,  and  by  elegance.  It 
possesses  great  epic  and  dramatic  poems,  which  are  written  in  Sans- 
crit. Among  the  Hebrews,  David  and  Isaiah  became  famous  by 
the  sublimity  of  their  poems. 

In  Greece,  Orpheus  wrote  poetry,  as  also  did  Hesiod,  father  of 
the  didactic  poem,  the  poetess  Sappho,  and  Homer  (about  933 
B.  C),  the  greatest  poet  in  ancient  times.     The  latter  was  born  in 

Give  a  description  of  the  Indian  monuments  ;  of  the  grottos  of  Ellora ;  of 
the  pagod  of  Chalambron  ;  of  the  wonders  of  architecture  in  Babylon  ;  of  the 
great  Chinese  wall ;  of  the  large  public  buildings  in  Rome.  What  was  the 
Circus  Maximus  destined  for?  What  is  the  character  of  Indian  and  Hebrew 
poetry  ?  Who  among  the  latter  excelled  in  poetry  ?  Who  in  Greece  ?  Who  was 
the  greatest  Greek  poet  ? 


\ 


29 

Ionia.  He  is  said  to  have  been  poor  and  blind.  The  subject  of 
his  "IHad"  is  the  Trojan  war;  of  the  OdysSea  Ulysses  (Odysseus). 
It  is  said  that  Lycurgus  brought  his  poems  to  Greece,  where  they 
were  sung  publicly  by  rhapsodists.  It  is  probable  that,  to  both 
poems  several  portions  were  added  by  later  poets.  The  fabulist, 
^sop,  a  native  from  Phrygia,  also  deserves  to  be  mentioned  in  this 
connection. 

In  Egypt  and  Babylonia,  the  priests  also  practiced  astronomy, 
and  computed  the  solar  and-  lunar  years.  In  the  former  country 
they  also  practiced  medicine;  but  anatomy  they  could  carry  on 
only  in  secret,  on  account  of.  the  superstition  of  the  Egyptians. 
There  were  particular  physicians  for  every  disease.  In  Greece,  too, 
many  priests  were  also  physicians.  As  time-keepers,  water-clocks 
(clepsydrae),  and  sand-glasses  were  used.  The  invention  of  our  fig- 
ures, according  to  the  testimony  of  the  Arabs,  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  Indians. 

Philosophy  could  not  prosper  in  the  despotic  Orient,  but  it 
made  much  better  progress  among  the  free  Greeks,  among  whom, 
even  in  this  period,  during  the  time  of  Solon,  the  seven  wise  men, 
as  they  are  usually  called,  appeared.  Their  doctrines  referred  to 
moral  and  political  topics,  viz :  "A  State  prospers  best  if  the  citi- 
zens obey  the  magistrates,  and  these  the  laws." — (Solon).  "Avarice 
is  the  center  of  all  mischief." — (Bias).  "  Know  thyself." — (Chilori). 
^'Pardon  is  more  beautiful  than  vengeance ;  the  former  is  human, 
the  latter  is  brutish." — (Pittacus).  Thales  was  also  a  celebrated 
astronomer  and  mathematician.  Bias  excelled  by  his  eloquence, 
which  he  employed  in  the  defense  of  the  poor  and  innocent.  Pit- 
tacus freed  his  country  from  tyranny  and  anarchy,  and,  having 
restored  order,  freely  resigned  the  supreme  power  intrusted  to  him. 

§  15.     Commerce.     Phcenieians.     Invention  of  Glass. 

All  commerce  was  at  first  carried  on  by  exchange ;  it,  however, 
became  more  perfect  by  the  invention  of  money  and  navigation. 
Money  was  originally  weighed  to  the  seller.  As  the  ancients  did 
not  understand  the  use  of  the  compasses,  they  carried  on  shipping 

What  is  the  subject  of  his  two  great  poems  ?  What  sciences  did  the  priests 
cultivate  in  Egypt  and  Babylonia  ?  What  kind  of  time-keepers  did  the  ancients 
have  ?  Who  invented  our  figures  ?  Where  did  philosophy  best  prosper  ?  Name 
some  of  the  seven  wise  men  of  Gi'eece.  ^15.  How  was  commerce  carried  on 
in  ancient  times  ?    By  what  inventions  was  it  improved  ? 


30 

only  along  the  coasts  of  the  ocean.  The  large  ships  had  fifty  rud- 
ders or  more,  arranged  in  two,  three  or  four  rows,  either  above  one 
another,  or  together. 

The  greatest  trading  people  of  the  first  period  were  the  Phoeni- 
cians. The  situation  of  their  country  on  the  sea  coast  invited  them 
to  engage  in  commerce  and  navigation,  and  the  sterility  of  their 
land  compelled  them  thereto.  They  had  colonies  on  Cyprus  and 
Rhodus,  in  Greece,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Spain  and  Africa.  They  boldly 
passed  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  advanced  as  far  as  England  and 
the  coast  of  Prussia.  Cadiz  (Gadir)  became  their  trading-place. 
The  articles  of  commerce  consisted  'of  glass  and  purple,  two  domes- 
tic products  which  they  are  said  to  have  invented ;  cotton,  from 
Egypt;  ivory,  spices,  gold  and  jewels,  from  Arabia  and  India; 
silver,  from  Spain ;  tin,  from  England,  and  amber,  which,  on  ac- 
count of  its  scarcity,  was  then  as  valuable  as  gold,  from  the  coasts  of 
the  Baltic  Sea.  Glass  was  used  by  the  ancients  only  for  the  embel- 
lishment of  the  ceilings  and  walls  of  rooms,  and,  as  an  article  of 
trade,  to  deceive  rude  people  therewith,  and  to  exchange  it  for  pre- 
cious goods.  Houses  had  no  glass  windows,  but  instead  thereof 
curtains  or  lattices. ^  For  drinking  purposes,  the  ancients  had 
earthen  pitchers,  or  goblets  made  of  metal.  The  mirrors,  too,  were 
of  metal.  Besides  the  Phoenicians,  the  Greeks  and  Babylonians 
also  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce. 

EXERCISES. 

Which  States  are  believed  to  be  the  most  ancient,  and  for  what  reasons  ?  What 
persons  of  the  earliest  time  in  the  history  of  Egypt,  Babylonia,  Palestine  and 
Greece  are  called  the  most  remarkable  ?  At  what  time  are  they  said  to  have  lived  ? 
What  are  the  names  of  the  greatest  conquerors  in  Egypt,  Babylonia,  Palestine  and 
Persia  ?  The  most  famous  heroes  of  Greece  ?  What  is  the  name  of  the  greatest 
Grecian  poet  ?  What  foreigners  essentially  advanced  civilization  in  Greece,  and  in 
what  way  ?  By  what  event  was  Sparta  raised  to  the  highest  power  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus? What  two  States  became  republics  almost  at  the  same  time,  and  in  what 
years  ?  Why  is  it  not  probable  that  Rome  has  had  only  seven  kings  ?  Who  con- 
tributed most  to  the  deliverance  of  Rome  ?  In  what  parts  do  the  constitutions  of 
the  Egyptians  and  Indians  resemble  each  other  ?  In  what  points  does  the  legis- 
lation of  Solon  and  Lycurgus  ?  In  what  pai'ticular  is  the  former  superior  ?  Where 
did  commerce  most  flourish  ? 

Of  what  material  were  the  mirrors  made  ?  Pitchers  and  goblets  ?  What 
other  nations  carried  on  commerce  ? 


31 

SECOND    PERIOD. 

From    tl^e    Greco-Persiaq    Wars    to    Enqperor    Augustus. 
Glorious  Age  of  Greece,     Macedoqia's   Univer- 
sal  Moriarcl^Lj,      Romaq   Republic. 
From  500  to  30  B.  C. 


riEST  OHAPTER-POLITIOAL  HISTORY. 


GREECE. 


1.    ITS  GLORIOUS  AGE-500  TO  430  B.  0: 


g  16.     Persian  Wars.     Battle  at  Marathon. 

Darius  Hystaspes,  after  having  conquered  Macedonia,  longed 
for  the  possession  also  of  beautiful  Greece.  He  soon  found 
pretexts  for  war.  Darius  ordered  the  Athenians  to  reinstate  the 
expelled  tyrant,  Hippias;  they  refused  to  do  so,  and  demanded  that 
he  should  be  delivered  up  to  them  instead.  Besides,  as  the  Greeks  in 
Asia  Minor  had  revolted  against  Darius,  they  assisted  them  (see  §  5). 
Hippias,  too,  excited  the  king  to  take  vengeance.  Consequently 
Darius  was  the  more  determined  to  wage  war  against  Athens,  and 
even  against  the  whole  of  Greece.  He  began  war  by  sea  and  by 
land  (492  B.  C.),  but  his  fleet  was  wrecked  in  a  storm  in  doubling 
the  promontory  of  Athos  (Capo  Santo),  and  his  land  forces  also  were 
beaten  by  the  Thracians  in  small  fights.  Darius,  nevertheless,  did 
not  give  up  his  purpose  of  war,  but  armed  again ;  at  the  same  time 
he  dispatched  heralds  to  the  different  Grecian  States  demanding 
earth  and  water  as  an  acknowledgment  of  their  submission.  Sev- 
eral States  sent  him  this  tribute ;  but  the  Athenians  threw  the  her- 
alds into  ditches  and  wells,  saying:  ''  Get  your  earth  and  water 
there !  "     Nor  did  they  fare  any  better  at  Sparta. 

§  16.  Under  what  pretext  did  Darius  Hystaspes  wage  war  against  the 
Greeks  ?  What  success  did  he  have  in  the  first  campaign  ?  How  did  the 
Athenians  and  Spartans  treat  his  heralds  ? 


32 

This  violation  of  the  international  law  enraged  Darius.  He 
sent  a  still  greater  army  (500,000  men,  as  some  report),  and  a  fleet 
of  six  hundred  ships.  Hippias  was  also  with  the  Persian  troops. 
They  carried  chains  and  a  huge  marble  block — the  former  to  be 
used  in  taking  the  Athenians  in  fetters  to  the  king,  the  latter  to  be 
erected  as  a  trophy  in  the  conquered  land.  The  fleet  sailed  first  to 
the  island  of  Euboea,  where  was  the  hated  town  of  Eretria,  which, 
in  the  sedition  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  had  conspired  with  the  Athe- 
nians. It  was  taken  by  storm,  pillaged,  and  burned  down,  and  the 
inhabitants  were  carried  off  as  slaves  to  the  interior  of  the  Persian 
empire.  The  enemy  overrun  Attica.  Athens  called  on  the  Grecian 
States  for  help,  but  the  Spartans  lingered  because  superstition  did 
not  allow  them  to  set  out  before  full-moon,  and  the  other  States 
refused  aid  entirely.  Platseae,  only,  sent  one  thousand  men. 
Athens  armed  nine  thousand  citizens  and  the  slaves.  According  to 
the  advice  of  Miltiades  it  was  resolved  to  attack  the  enemy  in 
open  battle.  The  other  nine  generals  also  offered  him  their  right  of 
command,  in  which  they  succeeded  each  other  in  regular  rotation 
day  by  day.  One  of  these  generals  was  Aristides.  The  Athenians 
were  encamped  on  the  plain  of  Marathon,  opposite  the  enemies. 
Though  much  inferior  to  them  in  numbers,  they  were  well  drilled 
in  arms,  and  led  by  excellent  chiefs.  They  were  inspired  with  love 
of  their  country  and  of  liberty,  and  glowing  with  hate  against  the  ser- 
vants of  the  despot.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Persians  were  forced 
to  fight  in  a  foreign  country,  without  courage  and  experience  in 
•war.  Miltiades  put  his  army  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  in  battle 
array ;  he  distributed  his  main  forces  on  both  wings,  and  the  slaves 
in  the  center.  Then  he  gave  the  signal  for  the  attack  (490  B.  C.) 
The  Greeks,  according  to  his  order,  rapidly  ran  towards  the  enemy. 
Their  impetuosity  terrified  the  latter ;  they  broke  through  the  two 
wings  of  the  Persians,  and  then  attacked  the  main  corps,  which  had 
already  compelled  the  slaves  to  yield,  and  put  the  enemy  to  flight. 
The  retreating  Persians  were  pursued  and  harassed  until  they 
reached  their  ships,  seven  of  which  were  burned.  Among  the 
killed  was  Hippias ;  his  hope  to  see  Athens  in  the  fetters  of  bond- 
age was  now  frustrated.    The  whole  Persian  camp,  with  all  its  treas- 

What  forces  did  he  muster  in  the  second  campaign  ?  What  was  the  fate  of 
Eretria  ?  Why  did  the  Spartans  not  support  the  Athenians  ?  Who  alone  sup- 
ported Athens  ?  Who  was  their  general  ?  Describe  the  battle  at  Marathon. 
How  did  Miltiades   distribute  his  forces  ^    What  of  the  slaves  ? 


33 

ures,  became  the  spoil  of  the  victors.  Never  was  the  joy  over  a 
victory  greater.  While  the  victorious  army  pursued  the  Persians,  a 
courier,  covered  with  blood  and  dust,  hurried  to  Athens,  crying  to 
the  citizens,  "  Rejoice,  we  have  gained  the  victory !  "  and  fell  down 
lifeless.  The  Persians  then  endeavored  to  surprise  Athens,  but  Mil- 
tiades  got  the  start  of  them,  and  already  stood  in  arms  before  the 
city^when  they  approached  it.  Frightened,  they  hastened  back  to 
Asia  in  their  ships.  The  day  after  the  battle  the  Spartans  arrived, 
looked  over  the  battle-field,  the  conquered  spoils,  and  returned, 
ashamed,  to  their  homes.  The  Athenians  buried  their  dead  fellow- 
citizens  in  the  most  solemn  manner,  and  erected  beautiful  monuments 
over  their  graves.  They  especially  honored  Miltiades,  the  hero  of 
the  day.  The  whole  people  received  their  savior  with  shouts  of 
joy,  and  his  glory  was  rendered  immortal  in  a  large,  skillfully- wrought 
painting,  which,  in  several  divisions,  represented  the  course  of  the 
battle.  For  a  long  time  the  Athenians  celebrated  the  glorious  day 
with  solemn  processions  and  sacrifices.  Later,  they  engaged  Phi- 
dias to  sculpture,  from  that  marble  block  of  the  enemies,  a  statue 
of  the  goddess  Nemesis,  the  avenger  of  human  insolence,  and 
raised  it  on  the  field  of  battle. 

Soon  after  the  battle,  Miltiades  learned  of  the  ingratitude  of  his 
fellow-citizens.  He  had  asked  a  fleet  to  chastise  the  islands  which 
had  betrayed  the  common  cause.  His  attack  on  the  island  of  Paros 
failed.  He  returned  wounded,  and  was  accused  of  having  been 
bribed  by  Darius.  His  brother  defended  him  at  court,  where, 
though  acquitted  from  the  capital  charge,  he  was  condemned  to  pay 
the  expenses  the  armament  of  the  fleet  had  caused.  As  he  was  un- 
able to  immediately  pay  the  necessary  sum,  he  was  thrown  into 
prison,  where  he,  as  some  report,  died  of  the  wounds  he  had  re- 
ceived at  Paros. 

Aristides,  who  had  materially  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Mar- 
athon, was  also  rewarded  with  ingratitude.  By  his  stern  integrity 
in  judicial  decisions,  he  had  acquired  high  authority,  and  the  sur- 
name of  the  "  Just."  The  young  Themistocles,  jealous  of  his  pub- 
He  power,  opposed  him,  and  succeeded,  by  ostracism,  in  having  him 
banished  for  ten  years.     During  the  voting  (as  they  say),  an  ig^o- 

What  of  the  courier  who  carried  the  news  of  the  victory  to  Athens  ?  How- 
did  the  Persians  succeed  when  they  attempted  to  surprise  Athens  ?  \Vhen 
did  the  Spartans  arrive  ?  How  did  the  Athenians  honor  their  fallen  citizens 
and  Miltiades  ?  What  of  Phidias  ?  How  did  the  Athenians  treat  Miltiades, 
when  his  attack  on  the  island  of  Paros  failed  ? 

(3) 


34 

rant  man  who  did  not  know  how  to  write,  brought  his  shell  to  Aris- 
tides,  whom  he  did  not  know,  requesting  that  he  would  write  the 
name  of  Aristides  upon  it.  "  Why,  what  harm  has  Aristides  ever 
done  you?"  said  he.  ''No  harm  at  all,"  answered  the  citizen; 
"but  I  cannot  bear  to  hear  him  continually  called  the  'Just.'" 
Aristides  smiled,  and  taking  the  shell,  wrote  his  name  on  it.  He 
submitted  calmly  to  the  unjust  decree  of  the  people,  saying :  "  I 
pray  the  gods  not  to  permit  that  the  Athenians  ever  have  reason  to 
remember  me."  His  love  of  justice,  among  numerous  instances, 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following :  Once,  in  a  lawsuit,  the  plaint- 
iff reminded  him  of  the  injury  Aristides  himself  had  suffered  from 
the  adversary ;  but  Aristides  replied :  "  Tell  me  only  what  wrong 
your  adversary  has  done  to  you^  for  now  I  am  not  my,  but  your 
judge." 

\  17.     Continued.     Battle  at  Thernnopylae.     Leonidas. 

Darius  could  not  forget  the  ignominy  he  suffered.  He  com- 
menced new,  immense  armaments,  and  after  his  death  his  son, 
Xerxes,  continued  them.  He  declared  that  all  nations  of  his  great 
monarchy  must  take  part  in  the  war  against  Greece.  Thus  it  hap- 
pened that  the  retinue  of  sutlers,  slaves,  women  and  children  in- 
cluded, about  two  milHons  of  people,  took  the  field.  But  among 
them  were  only  10,000  of  choice  troops.  The  fleet  consisted  of 
1,200  galleys  of  war,  besides  3,000  transports  and  smaller  vessels. 

The  Grecian  States  saw  the  approaching  tempest ;  nevertheless, 
they  were  at  variance  among  themselves.  Athens  and  Sparta  de- 
sired a  general  alliance;  but  some  held  aloof  by  a  warning  of  the 
oracle ;  others,  through  a  fear  of  the  king  of  the  Persians ;  some 
even  already  paid  him  homage.  At  this  crisis,  Themistocles  saved 
Greece.  While  yet  a  boy,  he  showed  such  rare  faculties  that  his 
teachers  said  that  he  was  destined  to  become  either  the  blessing  or 
the  curse  of  his  native  town.  Instead  of  being  fond  of  playing, 
like  other  boys,  he  delivered  extempore  speeches,  in  which  he  im- 
peached or  defended  his  playmates.  Nothing  in  instruction  inter- 
ested him  so  much  as  matters  which  concerned  the  State.  While  in 
a  merry  company  at  one  time  he  was  taunted  because  he  did  not 

Why  was  Aristides  called  "the  Just?"  How  did  he  behave  towards  a 
citizen  who  wanted  him  to  write  his  name  oh  a  shell  ?  Give  an  illustration  of 
his  justice.  ^17.  What  did  Darius  recommence?  Who  continued  the  arma- 
ments ?  How  large  was  the  army  of  Xerxes  ?  Who  saved  Greece  ?  What 
was  the  occupation  of  Themistocles  in  his  youth  ? 


I 


35 

know  how  to  play  the  lyre.  "  Well,"  replied  he,  proudly,  "  I  do 
not  know  how  to  sing  and  play ;  still  I  think  I  know  the  art  of  ren- 
dering a  State  famous  and  great."  The  glory  of  Miltiades  excited 
his  ambition  so  that  he  admitted  to  his  friends  that  the  trophy  of 
that  hero  did  not  let  him  sleep.  This  man  foresaw  the  war  with 
the  Persian  kings ;  therefore  he  had  induced  the  Athenians  to  build 
betimes  a  large  fleet.  Now  he  reconciled  the  discordant  States, 
and,  in  the  congress  of  the  Greeks,  at  Corinth,  he  inspired  them  for 
vigorous  resistance. 

Meanwhile  the  masses  of  the  hostile  army  arrived  at  the  Helles- 
pont, with  Xerxes  himself  at  their  head.  A  bridge  of  boats- was  built 
over  the  straits  by  his  order,  and  as  a  storm  destroyed  it,  a  new  one 
was  constructed.  A  passage  was  then  effected,  which  is  said  to 
have  lasted  seven  days  and  seven  nights.  The  fleet  followed  the 
land  forces.  The  enemies  were  scattered  over  Thracia  and  Thes- 
salia,  as  far  as  the  narrow  mountain  pass  of  Thermopylae,  the  key  of 
Greece.  Here,  where  mountains  and  morasses  only  permitted  a 
narrow  passage,  Leonidas,  king  of  Sparta,  had  encffmped  with 
eight  thousand  Greeks  (for  Sparta  at  that  time  still  had  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Grecian  states,  480  B.  C.)  The  Grecian  fleet  was  cruis- 
ing in  the  neighboring  ocean. 

The  Spartans  adorned  themselves,  as  they  were  accustomed  to 
do  before  a  battle,  braided  their  long  hair,  and  performed  sportive 
combats.  The  Persian  king,  to  whom  a  scout  reported  the  news  of 
this  occupation,  was  much  astonished.  He  commanded  Leonidas 
to  deliver  up  his  arms,  who  sent  him  this  answer :  "  Come  and  take 
them."  Xerxes  waited  four  days  more  in  the  hope  of  seeing  the 
Greeks  retreat  of  their  own  accord;  finally,  on  the  fifth  he  com- 
menced an  attack.  All  captured  Greeks  were  to  be  brought  alive  in- 
to his  presence.  The  Greeks,  in  close  rows,  and  covered  with  great 
shields,  stretched  their  long  pikes  towards  the  Persians.  All  attacks 
failed ;  the  enemies  fought  tiU  evening,  but  finally  withdrew  with 
great  loss.  The  corps  of  the  ten  thousands,  called  the  immortals, 
marched  on  to  their  place ;  but  after  a  murderous  contest,  they  also 
were  forced  to  yield.  The  next  day  there  was  a  new  combat,  and 
the  same  result.  The  hirelings  refused  to  fight  longer ;  they  were 
driven  with  lashes  into  the  narrows.     Xerxes  already  despaired  of 

Who  reconciled  the  discordant  Greeks  ?  What  accident  destroyed  the  bridge 
which  Xerxes  had  built  over  the  Hellespont  ?  Who  opposed  his  march  ?  And 
where?  What  was  the  pastime  of  the  Spartans  before  the  battle?  Describe 
the  battle. 


36 

the  possibility  of  gaining  the  victory,  when  a  wretch,  whose  name 
was  Ephialtes,  betrayed  to  him  the  by-path  which  led  over  the 
mountains.  Forthwith  he  dispatched  the  corps  of  the  immortals. 
These  found  but  a  feeble  resistance  on  their  march,  and  assailed 
Leonidas  in  the  rear.  The  latter  sent  the  army  of  the  alHes  back, 
retaining  only  his  three  hundred  Spartans ;  with  these  he  resolved 
to  die.  One  thousand  Thespians  and  Thebans  remained,  by  their 
own  choice,  with  him.  All  adorned  and  armed  themselves,  and 
cheerfully  took  their  last  meal.  "  The  next  repast,"  said  Leonidas, 
"  we  shall  take  in  the  nether  world."  The  next  morning  he  ad- 
vanced to  the  wider  part  of  the  valley.  His  small  troop  fights  with 
the  courage  of  lions.  They  make  dreadful  havoc  among  their 
enemies.  Two  brothers  of  Xerxes  were  slain.  After  the  spears  of 
the  heroes  were  shivered  to  pieces,  they  still  fight  with  swords. 
Leonidas  at  their  head,  is  one  of  the  first  to  fall.  A  furious  combat 
takes  place  over  his  corpse.  The  Persians,  who  desire  to  secure  it, 
are  four  times  repelled ;  at  last  the  Greeks  get  possession  of  the  dear 
treasure,  and  hold  it  till  the  troop  which  Ephialtes  guides,  assails 
them  from  the  rear.  The  faithless  Thebans,  too,  desert  to  the  ene- 
mies; but  the  Spartans  and  Thespians  retreat,  fighting,  to  a  hill 
where  they  still  defend  themselves,  till  the  last  man  falls.  Later, 
the  place  where  the  heroes  had  died  for  their  country  was  marked 
by  the  simple  epitaph :  "Go,  passenger,  and  tell  Lacedaemon  that 
we  died  here  in  obedience  to  her  laws."  A  lion  of  stone  pointed 
out  the  spot  in  the  defile  where  Leonidas  had  expired.  Ephialtes 
did  not  escape  his  deserved  reward.  The  Amphictyons  offered  a 
prize  for  his  head,  and  when  he  took  to  flight  he  was  killed. 

I  18.     Continued.     Battle  at   Salamis.    Themistoeles. 

The  battle  at  Thermopylae  had  caused  Xerxes  the  loss  of  20,000 
men;  it  was  small  for  him,  but  it  raised  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
Greeks  so  much  higher.  His  troops  poured  down  upon  Hellas 
and  laid  it  waste  by  fire  and  sword.  The  people  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus abandoned  Athens  and  the  other  Greeks  to  their  fate,  and 
intrenched  themselves  behind  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  In  this  for- 
lorn condition  the  Athenians  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi ;  they 

Who  betrayed  them  ?  In  what  manner  ?  How  did  Leonidas  then  dispose 
of  his  troops  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  last  contest.  What  epitaph  marked  the 
place  of  the  battle  ?  How  did  Ephialtes  perish?  ^  18.  How  did  the  States  of 
Peloponnesus  endeavor  to  save  themselves  ?  What  answer  did  the  oracle  of 
Delphi  give  to  the  Athenians  ? 


I 


87 

received  the  ambiguous  answer  that  Athens  must  seek  shelter 
behind  wooden  walls.  Themistocles,  who  had  caused  the  priestess 
to  dictate  this  reply  of  the  oracle,  persuaded  his  fellow-citizens  that 
by  the  wooden  walls  their  ships  were  understood.  At  his  advice, 
therefore,  they  left  the  city,  and  gave  it  up  with  their  goods  to  the 
enemies.  All  men  who  were  able  to  bear  arms,  betook  themselves 
to  the  ships ;  the  old  men,  women  and  children  took  refuge  in  the 
neighboring  islands.     Xerxes  pillaged  and  burned  the  empty  town. 

The  Grecian  fleet,  which  meanwhile  had  gloriously  fought  at 
Artemisium  (on  the  northern  end  of  Euboea),  and  then  had  sailed 
to  the  straits  of  Salamis  (opposite  Athens),  desired  to  depart 
from  this  place  now  in  order  to  defend  the  Peloponnesus.  Themis- 
tocles explained  how  unwise  this  plan  was,  and  advised  the  Greeks 
to  remain.  In  the  heat  of  the  dispute  which  ensued  between  the 
commanders,  Eurybiades,  commander-in-chief,  lifted  his  cane 
against  him ;  but  Themistocles  cried :  "  No  matter,  strike ;  but  hear 
me  !  "  When  he  threatened  that  the  Athenians,  whose  ships  com- 
posed nearly  half  the  fleet,  would  leave  it,  and  expose  the  allies  to 
destruction,  his  advice  finally  was  accepted.  But,  as  they  under- 
stood that  the  Persian  fleet  was  approaching,  this  resolution  would 
have  been  disregarded  if  he  had  not  used  a  stratagem,  viz.,  he  dis- 
closed to  Xerxes  the  design  of  the  Greeks  to  leave  the  bay,  and 
advised  him  to  surround  them  in  the  night,  because  he  could  in  this 
manner  easily  vanquish  them.  The  king,  consenting,  was  thus  en- 
snared. Xerxes  enclosed  the  bay  and  immediately  made  the  neces- 
sary preparations  for  the  battle.  Aristides,  who  lived  exiled  in 
JEginsL,  first  observed  the  movement  of  the  enemies.  He  forgot  all 
of  his  personal  enmity,  and,  at  the  risk  of  his  life,  hastened  through 
the  hostile  ships  to  Themistocles,  reported  to  him  what  he  had  seen, 
and  offered  to  serve  under  his  orders.  The  proposal  was  readily 
accepted. 

At  daybreak,  Xerxes  gave  the  signal  for  the  battle;  it  began. 
Themistocles  made  a  courageous  attack  with  the  fleet  of  the  Athe- 
nians. Only  a  few  of  the  clumsy  Persian  ships  could  fight  together 
in  the  narrow  bay.  The  wind,  which  had  risen  during  the  night, 
dashed  them  against  one  another,  or  drove  them  against  rocks  and 
cliffs,  where  they  foundered.     The  Grecian  ships  entered  between 

What  was  the  result  of  it  ?  Where  did  the  Persian  fleet  sail  to  ?  What  was 
the  desire  of  the  allies  now  ?  By  what  means  did  Themistocles  compel  them  to 
remain  and  to  engage  in  battle  ?  What  of  Aristides  ?  Give  an  account  of  the 
battle  at  Salamis.     Why  was  the  Persian  fleet  defeated  ? 


38 

them  from  all  sides,  and  sank  them  or  made  them  useless  for  com- 
bat. Confusion  and  disorder  spread  among  the  enemies,  and  in 
the  midst  of  the  combat  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  too,  deserted  to  their 
brothers.  The  Grecian  fleet,  though  only  composed  of  380  sails, 
gained  a  complete  victory  (480  B.  C.)  Xerxes,  confounded  by  the 
defeat  of  his  fleet,  ordered  it  to  set  out  immediately  for  the  Helles- 
pont, and  followed  it  with  the  larger  portion  of  the  land  forces, 
which,  on  their  retreat,  were  still  more  reduced  by  disease  and  want 
of  provisions.  Only  Mardonius,  with  300,000  men,  remained  in 
Thessalia. 

Greece  acknowledged  that  it  owed  its  safety  chiefly  to  Themis- 
tocles.  For  that  reason  the  Spartans  carried  him  in  triumph  into 
their  capital,  adorned  him  with  an  olive-branch,  presented  to  him  the 
finest  chariot  they  possessed,  and  sent  the  royal  body-guard  to 
escort  him  as  far  as  their  boundaries.  As  the  Olympian  games 
were  celebrated  soon  after,  all  who  were  present  rose  before  him, 
and  he  was  the  subject  of  such  general  admiration,  on  account  of 
his  dignified  appearance,  that  the  people  entirely  forgot  the  com- 
bats. Themistocles  declared  this  day  to  have  been  the  most  grate- 
ful of  his  life. 

g  19.     Concluded.     Battle  at  Plataeae.     Pausanias.    Aris- 
tides.     Cimon. 

The  returning  spring  of  479  B.  C.  called  the  Greeks  to  the  last 
combat  against  the  Persians.  First,  Mardonius  endeavored  to  in- 
duce the  Athenians  to  desert  the  allies,  promising,  in  the  name  of 
his  king,  to  enlarge  their  territory  considerably,  if  they  would  enter 
into  a  confederation  with  him.  But  all  artifices  of  Mardonius  were 
baffled  by  the  faithfulness  of  Aristides,  who,  after  his  glorious  con- 
duct at  Salamis,  had  been  recalled,  and,  at  that  time,  was  first 
Archon.  The  Athenians,  upon  his  advice,  answered  that  they 
would  fight  the  Persian  king  as  long  as  the  sun  moved  in  its  accus- 
tomed course.  They  promulgated  the  direst  imprecations  against 
whoever  should  make  a  proposition  to  unite  w^th  the  Persians. 

When  Mardonius  saw  that  his  proposals  were  rejected,  he  in- 
vaded the  territory  of  the  Athenians  and  laid  it  waste.  Shamefufly 
forsaken  by  the  Spartans,  they  were  obhged  again  to  flee  from  their 
native  city.     Hoping  that  they  had  become  less  obstinate  by  their 

What  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks  ?  How  was  Themistocles  recompensed  ? 
§  19.  Who  baffled  the  artifices  of  Mardonius  ?  How  did  Mardonius  endeavor 
to  make  the  Athenians  less  obstinate  ? 


I 


39 

distress,  Mardonius  again  offered  them  the  same  conditions  of 
peace,  but  they  were  refused  with  the  samS  fetern  resolution  as  be- 
fore. A  senator  who  moved  to  accept  them  was  stoned  by  the 
furious  people.  Meanwhile  the  Spartans  built  a  rampart  on  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth.  At  last  they  became  persuaded  of  the  folly  of 
this  enterprise,  and  sent  auxiliary  troops.  The  allies,  mustering 
loo.ooo  men,  now  marched  to  Boeotia,  in  the  environs  of  Plataese. 
Pausanias  had  the  chief  command ;  Aristides  was  at  the  head  of  the 
Athenians.  Much  time,  however,  passed  away  before  the  attack 
actually  took  place.  At  length,^  as  ,the  Greeks,  from  want  of  pro- 
visions, left  their  encampment,  and  marched  towards  Plataeae,  Mar- 
donius, taking  their  retreat  for  flight,  set  out  and  pursued  them  at 
the  head  of  his  cavalry;  the  remainder  of  the  army  followed  in 
disorder,  glad  to  have  a  chance  to  vanquish  their  enemies  without 
striking  a  blow.  A  terrible  conflict,  however,  soon  ensued.  As  the 
Persians  were  three  times  as  numerous  as  the  Greeks,  and  fought 
valiantly,  it  was  for  a  long  time  a  drawn  battle.  But  when  Mardo- 
nius fell,  struck  by  the  spear  of  a  Spartan,  his  corps  gave  way  in 
fright ;  the  rest  soon  also  broke  in  the  confusion,  and  the  flight 
became  general.  The  Persians  retreated  to  their  fortified  encamp- 
ment, but  the  victors  also  attacked  them  there,  scaled  the  wooden 
walls,  and  cut  down  almost  all  enemies.  They  captured  an 
immense  amount  of  spoils. 

On  the  same  day  of  the  victory  of  Plataeae,  the  Greeks  engaged 
and  burned  the  Persian  fleet  at  the  promontory  of  Mycale,  near 
Ephesus ;  after  this,  the  lonians  declared  themselves  free,  and  joined 
the  alliance  of  the  European  Greeks.  Athens  was  reconstructed 
and  made  more  beautiful  than  it  was  before,  and  the  city  and  har- 
bor, under  the  direction  of  Themistocles,  enclosed  within  a  strong 
wall.  The  Spartans  in  vain  opposed  its  construction,  pretending 
that,  in  case  of  a  new  attack,  the  Persians  would  be  provided  with 
a  new  stronghold.  The  Athenians,  afraid  of  the  resistance  of  their 
rivals,  had  recourse  to  an  artifice,  upon  the  advice  of  Themistocles ; 
namely,  they  promised  soon  to  send  embassadors  to  Sparta,  who 
would  impart  full  information  concerning  this  aftair.  Meantime  aU, 
even  women,  children  and  slaves,  continued  building  the  wafls,  and 
Themistocles  went  himself  to  Sparta,  but  there  retarded  the  desired 

Who  were  the  Grecian  commanders  in  the  battle  at  Plataeae  ?  Give  a  de- 
scription of  it.  What  of  Mardonius  ?  Of  the  Persian  camp  ?  What  other 
action  took  place  at  Mycale  on  the  same  day  ?  Who  opposed  the  construction  of 
the  walls  of  Athens  ?     By  what  artifice  did  Themistocles  outwit  the  Spartans  ? 


40 

explanation,  under  tl:^  pretext  that  he  must  wait  for  the  arrival  of 
his  colleagues.  As  the  Spartans  complained  that  the  construction 
of  the  walls  was  not  discontinued,  he  denied  the  fact,  and  requested 
them  to  send  embassadors  to  Athens  to  ascertain.  They  did  so ; 
but,  according  to  the  directions  of  Themistocles,  the  Athenians 
detained  the  deputies  until  the  walls  were  finished ;  then  he  declared 
to  the  Spartans  that  his  townsmen  had  enclosed  their  city  with 
walls,  because  it  certainly  was  their  right  to  do  so,  and  because  it 
was  both  to  their  own  advantage  and  for  the  welfare  of  all  allies. 
As  the  Spartans  saw  that  they  were  outwitted,  they  Hberated  the 
embassadors  of  Athens,  whereupon  the  latter  also  permitted  the 
Spartan  embassadors  to  return  home. 

The  Grecians  continued  the  war  against  the  Persians,  in  order  to 
also  liberate  their  colonies  from  their  dominion.  Pausanias  con- 
ducted himself  with  such  revolting  haughtiness  towards  the  other 
allies  that  they  would  no  longer  serve  under  his  command,  and 
elected  Aristides  their  commander-in-chief,  because  he  was  honest 
and  commanded  universal  respect  (447  B.  C.)  In  this  manner 
Sparta  lost  the  prerogative  of  the  chief  command  in  war,  which  now 
passed  to  the  Athenians.  After  the  death  of  Aristides  the  brave 
Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  became  general-in-chief  ot  the  federal 
troops.     He  vanquished  the  Persians  several  times. 

Pausanias  and  Themistocles,  in  later  time,  stained  the  glory  they 
had  gained  in  the  Persian  war.  The  former,  in  a  secret  letter  to 
Xerxes,  promised  to  effect  the  subjugation  of  Greece,  on  condition 
of  his  receiving  his  daughter  in  marriage ;  besides,  he  lived  in  such 
a  pompous  manner  that  it  caused  the  suspicion  of  treason,  which  was 
soon  proved.  The  ephori  recalled  the  traitor  from  the  army,  and 
attempted  to  seize  him ;  but  he  succeeded  in  escaping  to  the  Tem- 
ple of  Minerva,  which  was  regarded  as  a  sacred  asylum,  the  entrance 
of  which  they  closed  up,  and  he  was  left  to  perish  by  hunger.  It 
is  said  that  even  his  aged  mother  assisted  in  carrying  stones  for  this 
purpose.  Themistocles  also  was  accused  of  being  an  accomplice 
of  Pausanias.  He  at  that  time  Hved  in  Argos,  whither  the  Athe- 
nians, influenced  by  his  personal  enemies  and  the  Spartans,  had 
banished  him.  They  sent  officers  there  to  arrest  him,  but  he  escaped, 
amidst  many  dangers,  to  Asia,  where  he  was  graciously  received  by 
the  king  of  the  Persians.     He  promised  to  aid  him  in  subjugating 

Who  became  commander-in-chief  instead  of  Pausanias  ?  Who  after  Aris- 
tides ?  How  did  Pausanias  stain  the  glory  he  had  gained  ?  What  was  his  end  ? 
What  of  his  mother  ?     How  did  Themistocles  behave  in  later  time  ? 


I 


41 

Greece.  The  king  made  him  many  presents,  and,  for  his  support, 
assigned  him  the  revenues  of  three  cities.  It  is  also  reported  that 
Themistocles,  perceiving  that  it  was  impossible  to  fulfill  the  given 
promise,  finally  committed  suicide. 

Aristides  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  his  fellow- citizens  and  even 
of  all  confederates,  to  the  end  of  his  life.  Knowing  his  strict  hon- 
esty, which  had  been  oftentimes  tried,  they  committed  to  him  the 
superintendence  of  the  federal  treasury,  which  he  administered  with 
the  greatest  faithfulness,  and  in  so  doing,  remained  poor  himself. 
One  of  his  relatives,  the  richest  citizen  in  Athens,  being  reproached 
for  allowing  Aristides  and  his  family  to  pine  in  poverty,  vindicated 
himself  by  asserting  that  he  often,  but  in  vain,  offered  him  large 
sums  of  money,  and  appealed  to  the  testimony  of  Aristides  himself. 
Aristides  died  in  honorable  poverty,  not  leaving  enough  to  even  pay 
the  expenses  of  his  burial.  The  State  paid  them,  and  provided  also 
for  his  family. 

Cimon,  like  the  other  powerful  Athenians,  was  also  banished, 
because  his  fellow-citizens  were  afraid  of  his  great  authority ;  but 
after  the  fifth  year  he  was  permitted  to  return.  He  gained  the 
admiration  and  affection  of  the  Athenians,  not  only  in  war,  but  also 
in  peace.  He  put  the  harbor  into  closer  connection  with  the  city 
by  the  magnificent  long  walls,  which  were  constructed  at  his  sugges- 
tion. He  allowed  everyone  to  eat  of  the  fruits  of  his  gardens, 
which  were  left  without  guardians  or  enclosures.  If  he  went  out, 
he  was  always  followed  by  servants,  in  order  to  be  able  to  give  to  the 
needy.  He  often  offered  his  upper  garment  to  the  poorly  clothed 
and  indigent.  He  assisted  every  needy  person  with  his  wealth  and 
offered  them  protection;  he  enriched  many,  and  buried  others  at 
his  expense.     His  demise  was  generally  mourned. 

2.  PEOGEESSIVE  DECAY  OF  THE  GEEOIAN  STATES-430-146  B.  0. 


^  20,     Peloponnesian  War.     Pericles.     Alcibiades. 

Soon  after  the  Persian  wars,  the  domestic  quarrels  of  the  Grecian 
States  began,  in  which  they  inflicted  upon  each  other  deeper  wounds 
than  the  Persians  had  ever  done.  Sparta  and  Athens,  especially, 
hated  each  other  bitterly.     Athens,  by  its  merits,  had  become  the 

What  did  (he  confederates  commit  to  Aristides  on  account  of  his  honesty  ? 
Illustrate,  by  an  example,  how  he  bore  poverty.  Who  provided  for  his  burial 
and  his  family?  Give  an  account  of  Cimon's  character,  especially  of  his  munifi- 
cence.    §20.     What  was  the  cause  of  the  Peloponnesian  war? 


42 

head  of  the  confederation.  In  addition  to  this  Pericles  had  trans- 
formed it,  not  only  by  making  it  the  principal  seat  of  all  the  arts 
and  sciences,  but  also  by  making  it  more  powerful  than  it  ever  was 
before,  by  subjecting  to  it  many  cities  and  islands.  In  a  word,  he 
had  elevated  it  to  the  principal  State  of  Greece.  Athens  now  in- 
sisted upon  ruHng  the  alUes,  severely  punished  their  revolts,  and 
declared  that  the  stronger  had  a  right  to  govern  the  weaker;  in 
other  words,  that  20,000  Athenians  (for  that  was  the  number  of 
citizens  of  Athens,  out  of  its  180,000  inhabitants)  had  the  right  to 
govern  fifteen  millions  of  Greeks.  Its  sway  over  the  smaller  States 
was  especially  oppressive.  This  was  the  reason  why  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  finally  broke  out,  which  devastated  Greece  for  twenty- 
seven  years  (437-404  B.  C.)  The  two  rivals  led  the  contending 
parties,  and  summoned  all  their  allies  to  the  combat.  At  the  same 
time  it  was  a  struggle  of  the  constitutions  ;  most  of  the  aristocratic 
States  joined  the  Spartans  and  most  of  the  democratic  the  Athenians. 

The  Athenians,  having  assisted  the  inhabitants  of  Corcyra  against 
the  Corinthians,  were  accused  by  the  latter  of  having  thereby  vio- 
lated the  treaty  of  the  confederated  States  of  Peloponnesus,  and  an 
appeal  to  arms  was  immediately  resolved  on.  Pericles  commanded 
the  Athenians  and  their  allies.  In  the  first  years  of  the  war  both 
parties  mutually  ravaged  their  territories.  Attica  was  visited  by  a 
dreadful  plague  (430  B.  C.),  which  depopulated  the  town  and 
country.  The  Athenians  accused  Pericles,  who  had  persuaded 
them  to  wage  war,  to  be  the  originator  of  all  their  misfortunes, 
removed  him  from  the  command,  and  inflicted  a  fine  upon  him ; 
they  soon  reinstated  him,  however,  into  all  his  offices,  but  shortly 
afterwards  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  plague. 

The  terrors  of  civil  war  continued  raging.  The  inhabitants  of 
Potidaea,  in  Thracia,  bravely  maintained  the  siege  of  the  Athenians, 
and  at  last  preferred  to  eat  human  flesh  rather  than  surrender. 
Sparta  was  so  debased  that  it  had  recourse,  for  the  sake  of  ven- 
geance, to  the  friendship  of  the  Persian  king,  and  solicited  his  suc- 
cor. Pn  order  to  obstruct  all  methods  of  reconcihation,  both  repub- 
lics caused  their  embassadors  to  be  mutually  intercepted  on  the 
way,  and  killed.     The  Athenians  killed  1,000  captives  of  Mytilene 

What  States  were  at  the  head  of  the  two  contending  parties  ?  Which  was 
the  leader  of  the  democratic  States  ?  Which  of  the  aristocratic  ?  How  many- 
years  did  the  war  last  ?  Who  was  the  commander  of  the  Athenians  ?  What 
calamity  befell  Attica?  What  of  Potidaea?  From  whom  did  the  Spartans 
solicit  succor  ? 


43 

(in  Lesbos).  The  Spartans  destroyed  Platasae,  killed  the  men,  and 
enslaved  the  women  and  children.  They  enticed  2,000  Helots  to 
Sparta  under  the  pretense  of  making  them  free,  and  then,  being 
afraid  of  their  power,  murdered  them.  After  some  years,  the  con- 
tending parties  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  (421  B.  C),  called  the 
peace  of  Nicias ;  but  it  did  not  last  long. 

As  some  of  the  cities  of  Sicily  implored  the  aid  of  Athens  against 
Syracuse,  Alcibiades,  the  most  talented  and  wealthiest,  but  also  the 
most  inconsiderate  and  luxurious  citizen  of  Athens,  persuaded  the 
credulous  people  to  fit  out  a  large  fleet,  stimulating  them  with  the 
hope  that  they  certainly  would  conquer  not  only  Syracuse  and 
Sicily,  but  also  lower  Italy,  Carthage,  and  finally  the  Peloponnesus. 
Scarcely  had  he  landed  in  Sicily  (415  B.  C),  when  he  was  ordered 
to  return  to  defend  himself  against  the  accusation  of  irreligious  pro- 
fanation, brought  about  as  follows  :  Not  long  before  his  departure 
he  had,  at  night,  with  certain  wanton  companions,  upset  and  muti- 
lated the  statues  of  Mercury,  called  Hermes.  This,  at  least,  was 
the  accusation  brought  against  him  by  his  enemies.  He  did  not 
answer  in  law,  but  left  the  army  secretly,  and  learning  that  the  sen- 
tence of  death  had  been  passed  upon  him,  went  over  to  the  Spar- 
tans. The  reveller,  with  admirable  facility,  submitted  to  their  severe 
way  of  living,  and  soon  gained  such  a  power  over  their  minds  that 
he  could  move  them  to  support  the  Syracusans  against  Athens. 
The  army  of  the  Athenians  perished  miserably  in  Sicily.  As 
Alcibiades  ofiended  one  of  the  Spartan  kings,  the  government 
ordered  him  to  be  killed.     He  was  warned,  and  fled  to  the  Persians. 

The  Athenians,  depressed  by  the  disasters  which  had  befallen 
them  since  the  condemnation  of  Alcibiades,  longed  for  the  absent 
one ;  he  was  recalled,  and  again  obtained  the  chief  command.  He 
vanquished  the  Spartans,  and  returned  triumphantly  to  Athens ;  the 
whole  country  hailed  him  with  exultation.  He  fought  against  the 
Spartans  during  some  years  with  the  greatest  success  (410-408 
B.  C.) ;  but  while  he  forcibly  levied  auxiliaries  in  Ionia,  his  substi- 
tute, though  positively  forbidden  to  do  so,  engaged  in  a  battle,  and 
lost  it.  The  Athenians  now  dismissed  him,  whom  they  just  had 
idolized,  the  second  time,  electing  ten  generals  instead..    He  went 

What  city  did  they  destroy  ?  ^Yhat  atrocious  action  did  the  Athenians  com- 
mit in  Mytilene  ?  How  did  the  Spartans  treat  the  Helots  ?  What  pernicious 
advice  did  Alcibiades  give  to  the  Athenians  ?  Why  did  he  leave  Sicily  and  go 
to  Sparta  ?  Why  did  the  Athenians  recall  him  ?  And  why  again  dismiss  him  ? 
What  battle  did  they  lose? 


44 

to  Thracia,  bought  some  ships,  conquered  a  small  territory  for  him- 
self, and  lived  under  Persian  protection.  To  ^gos-Potamos  (river 
of  the  goat)  all  the  troops  of  the  Athenians  also  moved.  Alci- 
biades  warned  the  careless  commanders  against  the  enemies  in  vain. 
They  scornfully  rejected  his  counsel.  One  evening,  as  their  troops 
were  ashore,  straggling  and  dispersed,  Lysander,  aided  by  the  Per- 
sians, surprised  them,  and  completely  vanquished  both  the  fleet  and 
the  land  forces.  Two  hundred  ships  were  captured  and  three 
thousand  men  taken  prisoners,  and  a  large  number  killed.  He  then 
besieged  Athens  (404  B.  C),  compelled  the  city  to  surrender, 
demolished,  to  the  sound  of  flutes  and  national  music,  its  magnifi- 
cent walls  and  fortifications,  and  burned  all  their  galleys,  except 
twelve.  In  the  future,  Athens  was  only  to  keep  twelve  galleys,  and 
follow  Sparta  in  every  war.  The  democratic  constitution  was 
abolished,  and  an  aristocratic  government  established.  As  a  senate 
of  thirty  members  was  instituted  in  Sparta,  thirty  citizens,  siding 
with  the  Spartans,  also  obtained  the  highest  power  in  Athens.  The 
government  of  these  men,  notorious  under  the  name  of  the  thirty 
tyrants,  was  terrible.  Banishments,  rapine  and  executions  were  the 
order  of  the  day.  Alcibiades,  also,  was  condemned  to  die.  Those 
who  were  sent  to  kill  him,  not  daring  to  enter  his  house,  surrounded 
it  and  set  it  on  fire.  Alcibiades  having  quitted  it,  went  headlong 
through  their  arms  and  the  flames,  sword  in  hand ;  the  cowards 
fled,  and  killed  him  at  a  distance,  showering  their  arrows  upon  him. 
At  last,  Thrasybulus,  secretly  supported  by  Thebes,  undertook 
the  deliverance  of  his  country  (403  B.  C.)  Strengthened  by  many 
fugitives,  he  invaded  Attica,  took  the  harbor  (Piraeus)  by  force,  and 
beat  the  army  of  tyrants.  They  were  compelled  to  leave  the  city, 
and,  as  they  endeavored  to  maintain  their  power,  they  were  cap- 
tured and  killed.  The  people  gave  to  its  liberator  a  crown  of 
honor,  wreathed  with  two  olive-twigs,  and  the  modest  hero  was  sat- 
isfied with  the  small  reward.  The  free  constitution  was  re-estab- 
lished, and  later  the  walls  of  the  city  were  rebuilt  by  Conon.  But 
Athens  nevermore  attained  its  former  splendor  and  glory. 

§  21.     Socrates. 

Soon  after  the  overthrow  of  the  tyrants,  followed  the  execution 
of  the  noble-minded  Socrates,  in  Athens.     He  was  first  a  sculptor, 

What  ruinous  effects  did  their  defeat  have  ?  \yho  then  governed  in  Athens  ? 
How  did  the  thirty  tyrants  govern  in  Athens  ?  What  of  Thrasybulus  ?  How  did 
Alcibiades  end  his   life  ? 


45 

but  later  left  this  art  and  became  a  teacher  of  the  people,  in  the 
broadest  and  noblest  signification  of  the  word.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  the  vocation  of  encouraging  both  citizens  and  strangers  to 
do  good;  of  recommending  the  practice  of  virtue  and  justice,  and 
of  vigorously  opposing  the  moral  corruption  then  prevaiHng  in 
Athens.  He  neglected  his  own  interests  for  the  sake  of  this  calHng, 
being  always  poor ;  he  was  even  determined  to  die  for  it,  for  he 
believed  that  by  so  doing  he  could  be  most  useful  to  his  fellow- 
citizens.  Therefore,  as  the  thirty  tyrants  forbade  him  to  instruct  the 
youth,  he  did  not  obey  them,  declaring  to  his  judges  that  he  would 
rather  die  than  live  longer  on  the  condition  that  he  should  not 
teach.  There  was  then  in  Athens  a  numerous  class  of  scholars 
who  principally  professed  rhetoric,  but  who,  for  money,  taught  the 
defense  of  every  cause,  even  the  meanest  one,  and  declared  the 
principles  of  morality  and  justice  to  be  merely  superstition.  These 
men  were  called  sophists.  He  attacked  them  openly,  often  puzzled 
them  by  perplexing  questions,  and,  by  the  use  of  irony,  made 
them  ashamed  of  themselves. 

But  the  occupation  he  Hked  best  was  to  teach  and  educate  tal- 
ented young  men.  The  culture  of  their  minds  was  the  chief  object 
to  him.  He  once  met  the  young  Xenophon  in  a  narrow  thor- 
.  oughfare.  He  stopped  him  with  his  staff,  asking :  "  Tell  me,  if 
you  please,  where  flour  is  sold."  The  youth  answered:  "In  the 
market."  "And  oil  ?  "  "  Also  there."  "  But  in  what  place  do 
men  learn  virtue  ?  "  The  young  man  was  silent.  Socrates  cried  : 
"  Follow  me,  and  I  will  show  you."  And  Xenophon  became  his 
pupil.  Socrates  taught  strict  obedience  to  parents  and  the  laws ;  he 
disclaimed  against  the  principle  of  retaliation,  as  evil  for  evil,  etc. 
He  called  it  foolish  to  pray  for  riches.  He  said :  "  First  take  care 
of  virtue;  for  real  happiness  issues  from  it  of  itself." 

His  method  of  teaching  was  peculiar,  in  this,  that  he  endeav- 
ored to  excite  reflection,  and  to  spread  enHghtenment  by  proper 
questions.  He  neither  took  pay  nor  presents  from  his  scholars. 
He  saved  the  life  of  two  of  them  (Xenophon  and  Alcibiades),  in 
battle.  He  himself  was  released  by  the  latter,  while  in  danger  of 
his  own  life,  from  the  throng  of  enemies  who  had  surrounded  him. 

§  21.  What  vocation  did  Socrates  follow  first;  what  did  he  follow  later  ?  What 
did  he  teach  his  fellow- citizens  ?  Was  he  selfish  in  teaching  ?  What  did  he  de- 
clare to  the  thirty  tyrants  ?  How  did  he  deal  with  the  sophists  ?  Mention  his 
conversation  with  Xenophon  ?  What  was  his  method  of  teaching  ?  Whose 
lives  did  he  save  ?     Who  saved  him  ? 


46 

His  instruction  was  zealously  sought  for.  Euclides  sometimes  trav- 
eled twenty  miles,  from  Megara,  to  enjoy  it  at  least  one  day ;  and 
when  the  Megarians,  during  the  war,  were  forbidden  to  set  foot  into 
Attica  upon  pain  of  death,  he,  nevertheless,  in  the  disguise  of  a 
woman,  risked  it  and  went  to  him. 

Socrates  confirmed  his  doctrines  by  his  own  example ;  in  fact, 
he  believed  that  this  was  the  main  point  in  virtue.  He  lived  in  a 
very  plain  and  unostentatious  manner.  To  his  moderation  in  living 
he  owed  it  that  he  was  always  in  good  health,  even  while  the  plague 
was  raging  in  Athens.  He  could  pass,  without  any  ill  effects,  a 
sleepless  night,  and  be  able  the  next  day  to  wrestle  as  vigorously, 
to  teach  as  ingeniously,  and  entertain,  as  at  other  times.  He  was 
always  cheerful  and  in  good  humor,  and  patiendy  bore  offenses. 
He  was  free-spoken  against  the  thirty  tyrants.  When  they  com- 
manded him  to  bring  a  man  to  them  whom  they  wanted  to  kill,  he 
did  not  obey  them.  Thus  he  wrought  great  benefit  in  his  vocation 
during  forty  years.  The  most  illustrious  men  of  Greece  proceeded 
from  his  school. 

He  could  not  help,  by  his  method  of  teaching,  of  making  a 
number  of  people  his  enemies.  The  sophists  and  some  ambitious 
poHticians  hated  him  bitterly.  His  adversaries  at  first  attempted  to 
ridicule  him  publicly,  but  as  he  did  not  care  for  that,  they  engaged . 
Melitus,  a  wretched  poet,  to  appear  as  plaintiff  before  the  people. 
He  represented  Socrates  to  be  an  enemy  of  liberty,  who  daily  in- 
veighed against  the  democratic  form  of  government,  and  especially 
thought  that  it  was  nonsense  to  bestow  the  highest  oflices  by  lot. 
He  added  that  Alcibiades  was  an  enemy  of  the  republic,  and 
Critias  and  Theramenes  (both  also  pupils  of  Socrates),  had  been  at 
the  head  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  and  concluded  that  it  thereby  was 
proved  that  Socrates  corrupted  the  youth.  Besides,  he  accused 
him  of  introducing  new  divinities.  To  be  sure,  Socrates  had  de- 
clared himself  several  times  against  superstitious  customs ;  the  phil- 
osophers generally  were  reproached  for  not  believing  in  the  divin- 
ities of  the  country.  Both  offenses — corruption  of  youth,  and 
introduction  of  new  gods — were  capital  crimes.  Other  plaintiffs 
pleaded  in  the  same  way  as  Melitus. 

What  of  the  zeal  of  Euclides  to  hear  him  ?  Why  did  he  enjoy  good  health  ? 
What  was  his  humor  ?  When  did  he  disobey  the  tyrants  of  Athens  ?  How 
long  was  he  teaching  ?  Had  he  eminent  scholars  ?  How  did  his  adversaries 
try  to  ruin  him  ?     What  of  Melitus  ? 


47 

Socrates  defended  himself  courageously  and  calmly,  proving  his 
innocence.  The  fathers  and  older  brothers  of  his  scholars  also  tes- 
tified in  his  favor ;  nevertheless,  he  was  declared  guilty.  He  was 
allowed  to  choose  one  of  three  penalties — fine,  imprisonment  or 
banishment.  He  protested  against  all,  declaring  that  he  thought  he 
merited  the  same  as  other  men  who  had  deserved  well  of  the  coun- 
try :  to  be  maintained  for  the  rest  of  his  life  at  the  expense  of  the 
republic,  in  the  Prytaneum,  This  liberal  sentiment  provoked  his 
judges  60  that,  at  the  second  voting,  they  passed  the  sentence  of 
death  upon  him  (399  B.  C.)  He  said  to  them:  "I  am  going  to 
suffer  death  by  your  order,  to  which  nature  condemned  me  from 
the  first  moment  of  my  birth ;  but  my  accusers  will  soon  suffer  from 
infamy  by  the  decrees  of  truth." 

By  chance  he  was  obHged  to  remain  in  prison  thirty  days,  till  his 
execution.  His  scholars  and  friends  desired  to  liberate  him  by  brib- 
ing the  jailor.  All  preparations  for  his  flight  were  made;  but  he 
rejected  the  offer,  for  such  an  action  seemed  to  him  to  be  against 
the  laws,  and  beneath  his  honor.  In  prison  he  conversed  every  day 
with  them  on  the  hoHest  truths  of  philosophy.  The  last  day  they 
came  early  in  the  morning ;  his  wife  also  arrived ;  she  was  sobbing 
and  setting  up  great  cries.  Socrates  desired  them  to  take  her  away. 
One  of  his  friends  expressed  his  grief  at  his  having  to  die  innocent. 
"  What !  "  replied  he,  with  a  smile,  "  would  you  have  me  rather  die 
guilty  ?  "  Towards  evening  the  jailor  entered  to  inform  him  that 
the  time  for  drinking  the  hemlock  was  come ;  he  was  so  affected 
with  sorrow  that  he  turned  his  back  and  began  to  weep.  The  fatal 
cup  was  brought.  Socrates  asked  what  was  necessary  for  him  to 
do.  "  Nothing  more,"  repHed  the  servant,  "  than,  as  soon  as  you 
have  drank  it,  to  walk  about  till  you  find  your  legs  grow  weary, 
and  afterwards  He  down  upon  your  bed."  He  took  up  the  cup 
with  serenity,  without  any  emotion  or  change  in  his  color  or  coun- 
tenance, and  drank  the  whole  draught.  Till  then  his  friends  re- 
frained from  tears ;  but  after  he  had  drank  the  potion,  they  could 

Of  what  two  crimes  did  he  accuse  him  ?  Who  defended  him  ?  What  was 
the  verdict  of  his  judges  ?  What  reply  did  he  make  to  them  ?  W^hat  was  their 
final  sentence  ?  What  did  he  answer  then  ?  Who  attempted  to  liberate  him  ? 
W^hy  did  he  rej  act  the  offer  ?  On  what  topics  did  he  converse  with  his  scholars 
in  prison  ?  What  of  his  wife  ?  Relate  the  particulars  of  his  death.  What 
directions  did  the  jailor  give  him  ? 


48 

no  longer  master  themselves,  but  began  to  cry  aloud,  wringing  their 
hands.  He  consoled  them,  saying:  "Be  at  ease;  it  was  to  escape 
this,  I  sent  away  the  women."  In  the  meantime,  he  kept  on  walk- 
ing to  and  fro;  and  when  he  found  his  legs  grow  weary,  he  laid 
down  upon  his  bed,  as  he  had  been  directed  to  do,  and  covered  his 
face.  The  poison  then  operated  more  and  more.  When  he  found 
it  began  to  gain  upon  his  heart,  he  uncovered  his  face,  and,  soon 
after,  breathed  his  last.  Such  was  the  end  of  Socrates,  according 
to  the  declaration  of  the  oracle  of  Delphi,  the  wisest  man*  of  the 
Greeks,  and,  in  Xenophon's  opinion,  the  most  virtuous  and  hap- 
piest of  men, 

§  22.    Theban  War.    Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas. 
Battles  at  Leuetrse  and  Mantinea. 

After  the  conquest  of  Athens,  Sparta  was  again  at  the  head  of 
the  Grecian  government;  but  the  citizens  were  no  more  animated 
by  the  principles  of  Lycurgus.  To  the  severity  and  rudeness  of  the 
ancient  Spartans,  they  added  greediness  and  bribery,  and  severely 
oppressed  the  other  States.  By  uniting  the  pillaged  and  extorted 
treasures,  they  became  luxurious  and  immoral.  The  other  Grecians, 
however,  obeyed  them  with  servile  submission,  and  even  erected  al- 
tars to  the  tyrant  Lysander.  At  last  they  again  took  courage,  and 
made  an  alliance  against  Sparta,  not  only  among  themselves,  but  also 
with  the  Persians.  The  second  civil  war  commenced.  The  allies, 
assisted  by  the  Persian  fleet,  which  the  Athenian,  Conon,  com- 
manded (394  B.  C.),  were  victorious  at  sea;  but  the  Spartans,  led 
by  their  king,  Agesilaus,  prevailed  on  land.  After  that,  Artaxerxes 
dictated  to  free  Greece  the  peace,  by  virtue  of  which  the  Asiatic 
Grecians  again  had  to  submit  to  the  Persian  yoke. 

The  war  was  soon  recommenced,  because  Sparta  ruled  with 
more  tyrannical  sway  than  ever  before.  A  Spartan  army  set  out  on 
Its  march  to  Macedonia  (382  B.  C.)  When  passing  throiugh  Boeo- 
tia,  it  came  close  to  Thebes.  As  a  party  contest  was  just  prevailing 
here,  some  malcontent  noblemen  suggested  to  the  Spartan  general 

Describe  his  last  moments.  What  did  the  oracle  and  Xenophon  declare  him 
to  be?  §22.  What  was  the  character  of' the  Spartans  after  the  conquest  of 
Athens?  Mention  some  particulars  of  the  second  civil  war.  How  was  the 
citadel  of  Thebes  captured  by  the  Spartans  ? 


49 

the  scheme  of  taking  possession  of  the  citadel,  in  order  that  they 
and  their  partisans  could,  under  Spartan  protection,  act  much  more 
as  they  pleased.  The  proposal  was  accepted,  and  the  Spartans 
occupied  the  citadel  during  the  prevalence  of  peace.  Four  hun- 
dred Thebans  escaped  to  Atherfs.  The  people  endured  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  Spartans  and  of  their  Theban  partisans  for  four  years ; 
then  several  fugitives,  encouraged  by  Pelopidas,  resolved  to  put  an  end 
to  it.  The  time  determined  upon  to  execute  the  enterprise,  was  at 
a  festival.  The  majority  of  the  exiles  should  stop  at  the  frontier, 
but  some  were  to  hasten  before  to  Thebes,  in  order  to  first  dispatch 
the  tyrants.  The  The.bans,  disguised  as  peasants,  and  bringing 
hounds  and  hunting  apparel  with  them,  went  to  the  house  of  a 
conspirator,  where  they  met  several  associates.  Meanwhile  the 
tyrants  revelled  thoughtlessly  at  a  nocturnal  banquet.  A  messenger 
from  Athens  delivered  to  one  of  them  a  letter  which  contained  a 
detailed  account  of  the  whole  conspiracy,  and  asked  him  to  read 
the  letter  immediately,  because  it  concerned  very  serious  affairs. 
"  Serious  affairs  to-morrow !  "  replied  the  drunken  despot,  and  put 
the  letter  under  his  pillow.  Soon  after  Pelopidas  and  the  conspira- 
tors arrived  in  the  disguise  of  dancing-girls,  drew  their  poniards, 
and  killed  them  all.  Next  morning  the  rest  of  the  exiles  arrived 
from  Attica,  joined  them,  and  the  people,  encouraged  by  Epamin- 
ondas,  besieged  the  citadel.  The  Spartan  garrison  was  obliged  to 
surrender  before  relief  came  from  Sparta.  Agesilaus  now  led  a 
great  army,  supported  by  all  the  confederates,  against  the  Thebans, 
but  did  not  gain  a  decisive  advantage  over  their  commander,  Pelop- 
idas. Athens  aided  Thebes  with  its  naval  forces,  and  vanquished 
the  combined  fleet  of  the  enemies  (376  B.  C.)  A  general  congress 
met  soon  thereafter  to  make  peace.  The  principal  condition  was, 
that  all  States  should  become  entirely  independent  and  sovereign. 
Peace  was  again  restored  by  Persian  intervention.  Thebes  alone 
was  excluded,  because  it  would  not  accord  freedom  to  the  Boeotian 
townships  unless  Sparta  also  restored  the  Messenians  to  liberty. 

Sparta,  supported  by  the  other  Greeks,  assaulted  the  forsaken  foe 
with  renewed  fury ;  at  Leuctra,  in  Boeotia,  the  Spartans  fought  with 
25,000  men  against  6,000  Thebans  (371  B.  C.)   Epaminondas  was  the 

How  long  a  time  did  their  government  last  ?  Who  then  delivered  the 
Thebans?  In  w^hich  vv^ay  ?  In  vv^hat  disguise  did  the  conspirators  introduce 
themselves  ?  What  were  the  effects  of  the  surprise  ?  What  of  Agesilaus  and 
the  general  congress  ?  What  did  they  resolve  upon  ?  Give  an  account  of  the 
battle  at  Leuctra. 

(-1) 


50 

commander  of  his  fellow-citizens ;  Pelopidas  fought  at  the  head  of 
the  Sacred  Battalion,  which  was  composed  of  three  hundred  brave 
young  men,  who  had  pledged,  under  oath,  to  defend  each  other  to 
the  last  drop  of  blood.  Proud  Sparta  suffered  a  complete  defeat, 
the  heaviest  she  had  ever  endured.  '  Epaminondas,  whose  strategic 
art  had  conduced  most  to  this  victory,  declared  the  joy  his  parents 
felt  over  his  victory  to  be  his  best  reward.  He  then  invaded  Laco- 
nia,  where,  according  to  a  Spartan  adage,  till  then  a  woman  never 
had  seen  the  smoke  of  a  hostile  camp,  alarmed  the  capital,  and 
delivered  the  Messenians  from  the  dominion  of  Sparta.  Those  who 
were  dispersed  in  different  regions  then  returned,  and  under  his 
protection  built  a  new  city  for  themselves.  Satisfied  to  have  humil- 
iated Sparta,  he  returned  home. 

Here  the  victor  was  about  to  be  punished  with  death,  for  the 
following  reason :  He,  Pelopidas,  and  the  other  generals,  were 
summoned  to  answer  as  criminals  for  having  retained  their  com- 
mand some  months  beyond  the  appointed  term.  He  desired  to  be 
alone  held  responsible  for  the  crime,  and  declared  himself  to  be 
prepared  to  die  if  the  Thebans,  in  their  verdict,  would  state  that 
they  executed  him  because  he  compelled  them  to  vanquish  the 
Lacedaemonians,  and  thereby  saved  both  themselves  and  all  Greece, 
and  also  delivered  the  Messenians.  He  was  immediately  acquitted, 
amid  universal  approbation. 

A  quarrel  between  Mantinea  and  Tegea,  in  Arcadia,  caused  the 
war  to  recommence.  Thebes  declared  in  favor  of  the  Tegeans; 
Sparta  took  part  with  their  adversaries,  and  Athens,  being  jealous 
of  Thebes,  joined  her.  Epaminondas  again  mvaded  Lacedaemonia 
and  penetrated  into  Sparta  as  far  as  the  public  place;  there  Agesilaus 
saved  the  city.  Epaminondas  retired  before  the  superior  force  of 
the  allies;  they  followed  him,  and  at  Mantinea  the  decisive  battle 
was  fought  (362  B.  C.)  Epaminondas  was  victorious,  by  his  excel- 
lent plan  of  battle  and  by  his  personal  valor  overpowering,  at  the 
head  of  a  selected  troop,  every  resistance.  But  as  he  advanced  too 
boldly,  the  enemies  singled  him  out  as  an  object  of  their  attack, 
and  did  not  cease  till  they  saw  him  sink  down,  hit  by  a  javelin. 
The  wounded  commander  had  to  be  carried  off  from  the  field  of 
battle.     When  the  physician  informed  him  that  he  would  die  as 

What  did  Epaminondas  declare  to  be  his  best  reward  for  the  victory?  What 
people  did  he  deliver?  How  did  he  defend  his  illegal  conduct?  Give  an  ac- 
count of  the  battle  at  Mantinea. 


I 


51 

soon  as  the  head  of  the  dart  was  drawn  out  of  the  wound,  he  de- 
sired that  it  remain  there  until  he  was  told  that  the  Thebans  were 
victorious;  then  he  cried  out:  "Well,  then,  I  have  lived  long 
enough."  Then  he  permitted  the  iron  to  be  drawn  out  of  the 
wound,  and  expired. 

Thus  died  Epaminondas,  the  great  general  and  statesman,  whom 
Cicero  declared  to  be  the  first  among  all  the  Greeks.  He  excelled 
also  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  was  very  well  informed  in  music. 
He  was,  moreover,  so  devoted  to  philosophy  that,  when  he  was 
young,  he  preferred  the  company  of  his  teacher,  a  serious  old  man, 
to  all  other  comrades.  When  he  was  in  society  where  they  dis- 
cussed State  affairs  he  never  left  till  the  conversation  was  finished. 
He- was  also  a  distinguished  orator,  and  it  is  said  he  loved  truth  so 
well  that  he  never  told  a  lie,  not  even  by  way  of  jest.  He  cheer- 
fully endured  poverty,  nor  did  he  enrich  himself  by  public  ofiices. 
He  did  not  lay  claim  to  the  wealth  of  his  friends  for  his  benefit, 
but  in  order  to  support  others.  A  manager  of  Artaxerxes  once 
attempted  to  bribe  him,  but  Epaminondas  said:  "  It  is  of  no  use 
to  offer  me  money ;  for  if  that  which  the  king  desires  is  beneficial 
to  the  Thebans,  I  will  do  it  for  nothing;  if  not,  he  has  not  gold 
and  silver  enough,  for  I  would  not  take  all  the  treasures  of  the 
world  in  exchange  for  the  love  of  my  country."  The  embassador 
was  obliged  to  quit  Thebes  quickly,  and  to  a  friend  of  his  who 
had  been  bribed  by  the  same  man,  he  gave  an  order  to  immediately 
return  the  sum  received,  threatening,  in  case  he  failed  to  do  so,  to 
inform  the  magistrate.  He  likewise  dismissed  his  shield-bearer, 
who  had  given  a  captive  his  liberty  for  money,  saying  to  him  : 
"  Since  money  polluted  your  hands,  you  can  no  more  be  my  com- 
panion in  dangers."  A  Thessalian  prince  desired  to  engage  him  in 
an  unjust  alliance,  offering  him  2,000  pieces  of  gold.  He  refused 
the  present,  although  he  was  then  obliged  to  borrow  from  a  friend 
the  sum  necessary  to  purchase  his  armorial  implements.  He  never 
sought  a  place  of  honor,  but  if  he  was  entrusted  with  one  he  man- 
aged it  faithfully,  no  matter  how  low  it  was.  When  his  fellow-citi- 
zens, through  envy,  did  not  elect  him  general,  but  an  ignorant  man 
obtained  the  chief  command,  by  whose  incapacity  the  misfortune 
befell  the  troops  of  being  surrounded  by  the  enemies,  he  forgot  the 

When  did  he  cause  the  javelin  to  be  drawn  out  of  the  wound  ?  Who  was  vic- 
tor ?  What  does  Cicero  say  of  Epaminondas  ?  In  what  arts  and  sciences  did  he 
excel  ?  Did  he  love  truth  ?  How  did  he  endure  poverty  ?  Give  examples.  W^hy 
did  he  dismiss  his  shield-bearer  ?     Demonstrate  that  he  was  not  ambitious. 


52 

injury  he  had  suffered,  delivered   the  army,  and  returned  it  in  safe 
condition.     He  acted  thus  several  times. 

Pelopidas,  also  victorious,  had  fallen  in  a  battle  two  years  before 
Epaminondas.  Both  were  faithful  friends.  After  the  death  of  the 
two  heroes,  Thebes  quickly  fell  back  into  her  former  obscurity. 

^  23.     Greece  Subdued  by  Macedonia  and  Rome.     Con- 
federacy of  Achaia. 

The  domestic  weakness  of  the  Grecian  States  was  increasing 
more  and  more;  they  were  no  longer  able  to  sustain  the  laws  and 
public  order  among  their  own  citizens.  The  love  of  country, 
liberty  and  glory  was  waning;  sensuality,  egotism,  and  party  strife 
succeeded  them.  Under  these  circumstances,  Philip  of  Macedonia 
was  enabled  to  subjugate  Greece.  In  order  to  attain  his  purpose 
he  created  a  powerful  army,  bribed  the  national  orators  of  the 
Greeks,  and  kept  alive  the  flame  of  their  internal  dissensions. 
Finally,  actual  war  again  broke  out,  and  thus  access  to  their  land 
was  opened  to  him. 

The  Phocians  had  cultivated  some  fields  consecrated  to  Apollo, 
in  Delphi,  and  therefore  the  tribunal  of  the  Amphictyons  decreed 
their  chastisement  (356  B.  C.)  The  Phocians  were  irritated  by  this 
decree  and  pillaged  the  temple ;  the  Amphictyons  rendered  their  de- 
cision more  severe,  and  compelled  Thebes  to  execute  it.  The  Phocians 
recruited  great  armies  with  the  stolen  treasures ;  Sparta  and  Athens 
aided  them ;  the  war  was  much  protracted,  and  waged  with  great 
violence.  It  had  raged  ten  years,  when  the  exhausted  Thebans 
applied  for  help  to  watchful  Philip ;  he  entered  Greece  through  the 
defile  of  Thermopylae,  forced  the  Phocians  to  lay  down  their  arms, 
and  received  their  vote  in  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons.  He 
kept  possession  of  this  important  pass.  For  some  years  Demps- 
thenes  and  Phocian  hindered  him  in  the  accomplishment  of  his 
objects — the  former  by  fulminating  his  orations ;  the  latter  by  his 
victories  in  the  Cherronesus  (Crimea),  where  Philip  wished  to  make 
conquests.  Then,  as  the  Locri  also  occupied  some  fields  of  the 
temple-district  and  were  outlawed,  the  Amphictyons,  misled  by 
some  bribed  orators,  called  upon  Philip  to  execute  the  proscription. 
He   came    (339    B.   C),  occupied  Elatea,  in  Phocis,  (the  pass  to 

Who  was  his  friend?  ^23.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  morals  of  the 
Greeks  after  the  Theban  war  ?  How  did  Philip  gain  an  entrance  into  Greece  ? 
Narrate  the  war  against  the  Phocians.  Against  the  Locri.  What  two  men  re- 
tarded him  ? 


53 

Thebes  and  Athens),  and  remained  in  this  land  during  the  winter. 
He  had  now  unmasked  himself,  and  terror-stricken,  the  Greeks  per- 
ceived his  design.  Demosthenes  called  the  Athenians  and  Thebans 
to  arms,  but  to  no  purpose.  Philip  vanquished  them  entirely, 
though  fighting  bravely,  at  Chaeronea;  i,ooo  Athenians  were  killed 
on  the  battle-field  (338  B.  C.)  He  then  compelled  the  Greeks  to 
appoint  him  commander-in-chief  against  the  Persians.  His  son, 
Alexander,  accomplished  what  death  hindered  Philip  from  doing. 
The  liberty  of  the  Greeks  was  lost ! 

After  Philip's  death  the  Greeks,  without  delay,  again  took  up 
arms,  but  Alexander  subdued  them  without  any  combat.  When  he 
was,  after  that,  occupied  in  another  war,  and  rumor  reported 
his  death,  they  revolted  again.  Alexander  quickly  arrived 
and  conquered  and  destroyed  Thebes ;  many  inhabitants  w^ere  slain  ; 
30,000,  who  remained,  were  sold  into  slavery;  only  Pindar's 
descendants  obtained  a  pardon,  and  his  house  alone  was  spared. 
While  Alexander  was  waging  war  against  the  Persians,  Sparta,  which 
alone  had  not  surrendered,  invited  the  Peloponnesians  to  rebel ;  but 
Antipater,  Alexander's  governor^  suppressed  the  insurrection  in  a 
battle  (330  B.  C.)  After  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Greeks,  en- 
couraged by  Demosthenes,  rose  once  more.  Antipater  vanquished 
them  again  (322  B.  C.),  compelled  Athens  to  pay  the  expenses  of 
the  war,  and  demanded  the  delivery  of  Demosthenes.  The  latter 
made  his  escape,  but  was  pursued  and  overtaken  by  Macedonian 
horsemen.  As  he  had  no  other  alternative  than  either  to  become  the 
prisoner  of  his  vindictive  enemy  or  to  take  his  own  life,  he  chose 
the  latter,  sucking  poison  from  his  pen,  and  died  cherishing  the 
same  freedom  for  which  he  had  fought  during  his  whole  life. 

About  seventy  years  later  the  love  of  liberty  again  awoke  in 
Peloponnesus ;  some  of  the  cities  in  Achaia  expelled  their  tyrants 
and  renewed  their  old  alliance.  Aratus  became  its  leader  (246  B. 
C.)  Athens,  Corinth,  Sicyon,  and  most  of  the  other  cities  in  Pelop- 
onnesus took  part  in  it.  This  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Spartans, 
who  stood  aloof  from  it.  A  bloody  war  ensued  between  them,  and 
the  allies,  who  were  too  weak  to  resist  them,  solicited  the  assistance 
of  the  Macedonians  (225  B.  C.)  Thus  the  confederation  suc- 
cumbed to  the  Macedonian  government. 

Where  did  Philip  vanquish  the  Greeks  ?  How  did  Alexander  punish  them 
when  they  revolted  again?  What  of  Pindar's  descendants?  How  did  Demos- 
thenes die?  What  cities  formed  the  Achaian  confederacy?  Why  did  it  suc- 
cumb ? 


54 

Although  the  Romans,  after  having  subjugated  Macedonia,  de- 
clared Greece  a  free  and  independent  country  (197  B.  C),  their 
intentions  were  not  honest.  They  secretly  disseminated  discord 
among  the  Greeks,  and  thus  prepared  their  ruin.  One  thousand 
patriotic  Achgei,  accused  of  being  devoted  to  Macedonian  domin- 
ion, were  enticed  to  Rome,  where  they  were  forcibly  detained. 
Most  of  them  died  in  captivity.  The  three  hundred  who  survived 
were  not  permitted  to  return  to  their  country  for  seventeen  years 
(151  B.  C.)  When  Rome  demanded  that  Sparta  and  other  cities 
should  be  separated  from  the  union  of  Achaia,  the  later  waged  war 
against  the  Spartans;  but  the  Romans  succored  them,  and  van- 
quished the  Achaei,  even  boys,  old  men  and  slaves,  fearless  of 
death,  perishing  for  liberty.  Consul  Mummius  conquered  Corinth 
and  burned  the  rich  city,  whereby  many  splendid  works  of  art  were 
destroyed.  Such  inhabitants  as  were  capable  of  bearing. arms  were 
slain,  and  the  women  and  children  sold.  The  doom  of  Thebes 
and  other  cities  was  the  same.  The  democratic  constitutions  were 
abolished,  and  Greece,  with  the  name  Achaia,  declared  a  Roman 
province.  Only  Athens,  which  was  partial  to  the  Romans,  was  per- 
mitted to  keep  its  constitution. 

I  24.     Syracuse.     Timoleon. 

While  Greece  lost  her  liberty  by  civil  wars,  party  conflicts  also 
raged  in  Sicily,  which  the  Carthaginians  made  use  of  to  subjugate 
several  cities  in  this  island.  The  Syracusans,  in  order  to  protect 
themselves  against  their  attacks,  committed  the  unrestricted  com- 
mand to  Dionysius,  their  fellow-citizen ;  but  he  abused  the  power 
conferred  on  him,  and  turned  out  a  tyrant,  concluding  peace  with 
the  Carthaginians.  He  ruled  the  Syracusans  by  terror ;  but  fear 
and  suspicion  continually  tormented  him.  He  seldom  showed 
such  meekness  as  towards  the  two  friends,  Damon  and  Pythias 
(Phyntias),  whom  he  first  sentenced  to  death,  but  afterwards  par- 
doned for  their  uncommon  faithfulness.  His  son,  the  younger 
Dionysius,  who  attained  the  government  after  him,  resembled  his 
father  in  character.  The  Syracusans,  therefore,  appHed  for  help  to 
Corinth,  their  native  town.     There  one  of  the  most  prominent  citi- 

By  what  means  did  the  Romans  prepare  the  ruin  of  Greece  ?  Give  an  account 
of  the  struggle  of  the  Achaian  league  against  the  Romans.  What  was  the  doom 
of  Corinth  ?  Of  Thebes  ?  What  city  was  permitted  to  keep  its  constitution  ? 
^  24.  Did  Dionysius  the  elder  protect  the  Syracusans  ?  How  did  his  son  govern 
them  ?     What  was  his  success  ? 


55 

zens  had  usurped  the  sovereignty,  with  the  assistance  of  the  popu- 
lace ;  but  his  own  brother,  Timoleon,  rose  against  him.  The  latter 
repaired  with  two  friends  to  the  tyrant,  whose  life  he  had  saved  in 
battle,  and  remonstrating  with  him,  asked  him  to  resign  the  govern- 
ment. When  he  saw  that  his  advice  had  no  efifect,  he  covered  his 
face,  and  the  two  companions  killed  his  brother. 

This  was  the  man  whom  the  Corinthians  sent  with  some  troops 
to  assist  their  colony  (345  B.  C.)  Timoleon  vanquished  the  four- 
fold stronger  enemy,  compelled  the  Carthaginians,  who,  meanwhile, 
had  also  entered  by  force  into  Syracuse,  to  evacuate  the  city,  and 
obliged  Dionysius  to  abdicate.  The  tyrant  went  to  Corinth,  spent 
his  riches  in  drinking,  and  finally  was  compelled  to  make  a  living 
by  begging.  He  is  also  said  to  have  given  singing-lessons.  Timo- 
leon gave  to  the  city  a  democratic  constitution,  caused  the  fort  of 
the  tyrant  to  be  destroyed,  and  induced  colonists  to  settle  in  the 
depopulated  city,  to  whom  he  distributed  lands.  He  also  expelled 
the  despots  from  other  cities  of  Sicily.  When  the  Carthaginians, 
with  70,000  men,  again  landed  and  endeavored  to  recover  the  lost 
territory,  he  met  them  valiantly  and  totally  defeated  them  (340 
B.  C.)  They  made  another  attempt  one  year  after,  but  did  not  suc- 
ceed better;  they  had  to  make  peace.  In  this  manner,  through 
Tmioleon,  the  Syracusans  and  all  Sicily,  after  a  few  years,  became 
free  and  happy. 

Soon  after,  Timoleon  gave  up  his  authority  of  his  own  accord, 
and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  as  a  private  person,  with  his  wife  and 
children,  on  an  estate  the  Syracusans  had  given  to  him.  He  was 
generally  honored,  and  the  Syracusans  always  called  him  to  their 
assistance  if  they  had  any  important  aftair  to  deliberate  upon. 
When,  near  the  end  of  his  life,  he  lost  his  sight,  they  paid  him 
visits,  and  expressed  their  gratitude  to  him  for  his  noble  services. 
He  complained  to  nobody  of  his  misfortune,  but  continued,  never- 
theless, to  participate  in  the  public  deliberations.  When  he  was 
praised  with  regard  to  his  exploits,  he  said  modestly  that  he  gave 
thanks  to  the  gods  for  having  chosen  him  the  instrument  for  the 
deliverance  of  Sicily.     With  tears  the  Syracusans  followed  his  bier 

What  vocation  did  he  follow  in  Corinth  ?  How  did  Timoleon  deliver  the 
Corinthians  from  their  tyrant  ?  Where  did  they  send  him  to  ?  What  enemy 
did  he  vanquish  in  Sicily?  What  constitution  did  he  give  to  the  Syracusans? 
Whom  did  he  defeat  again  ?  In  what  condition  did  he  live  for  the  rest  of  his 
life  ?  In  what  manner  did  he  assist  the  Syracusans  ?  How  did  he  bear  blind- 
ness ?     To  whom  did  he  give  credit  for  his  exploits  ? 


56 

to  the  grave.  They  erected  a  magnificent  monument  in  honor  of 
the  deceased,  and  commemorated  his  memory  by  annual  games. 
His  tomb  was  adorned  with  colonnades,  and  was  destined  to  be  a 
gymnasium  for  the  youth.  Timoleon,  in  antiquity,  passed  for  the 
highest  model  of  an  eminent  republican. 

§25.    Macedonia.    Philip.    Alexander  the  Great,  Founder 

of  an  Universal  Monarchy.      Battles    at  Issus, 

Granicus    and  Arbela. 

Ancient  Macedonia,  situated  north  of  Greece,  had  Grecian 
inhabitants,  language  and  customs.  To  the  time  of  Phihp  its 
history  was  of  no  importance.  This  prince,  in  consequence  of  a 
domestic  contest  for  the  throne,  which  Pelopidas  settled,  came  as  a 
hostage  to  Thebes,  where  he  was  educated;  he  escaped  from  there, 
and  was  declared  king  of  Macedonia  (361  B.  C.)  Besides  Greece, 
he  subdued  all  the  countries  from  the  Danube  (Isther)  to  the  Adriatic 
and  Black  Seas.  The  rich  gold  mines  he  possessed,  and  the  phalanx 
he  had  trained,  made  his  conquests  much  easier.  He  used  to  say  : 
"  No  fortress  is  invincible  if  a  mule  laden  with  gold  can  enter  it." 
The  phalanx  was  a  square  body  of  soldiers,  formed  in  ranks  and  files 
close  and  deep,  armed  with  pikes  twenty-one  feet  long ;  the  single 
files  opposed  their  pikes,  Hke  our  soldiers  their  bayonets,  to  the  enemy. 
By  dint  of  it,  Philip  vanquished  the  Greeks  at  Chaeronea.  At  last  he 
prepared  to  attack  also  the  Grecian  empire,  but  his  wife  conspired  to 
have  him  killed  (336  B.  C).  His  son,  Alexander,  called  the  Great,  on 
account  of  his  conquests,  early  showed  his  ambition,  once  exclaiming 
with  tears  :  "  Friends,  my  father  will  take  all,  and  leave  nothing  for 
us  to  do  !  "  He  undertook  a  war  against  the  Persians  when  he  was 
only  twenty-two  years  old.  Then  Darius  Codomanus,  an  imbecile 
king,  ruled  them.  With  only  34,000  men  Alexander  cro.ssed  the 
Granicus,  a  coast-river  in  Asia  Minor,  in  sight  of  the  hostile  army,  and 
put  it  to  flight  (334  B.  C.)  He  was  in  danger  of  his  life  in  this  battle, 
as  two  Persian  generals  attacked  him ;  one  split  his  helmet,  and  the 
other  raised  his  arm  to  strike  his  bare  head,  when  his  friend  Clitus 
hurriedly  came  to  his  rescue  and  with  a  heavy  blow  struck  the  arm 
and  sword  of  the  Persian    to  the  ground ;  meanwhile,  Alexander 

How  did  the  Syracusans  honor  his  death  and  his  memory?  §25.  Where 
was  Philip  educated  ?  By  what  means  were  his  conquests  facilitated  ?  How 
was  the  phalanx  composed  ?  How  did  Alexander  early  show  his  ambition  ? 
How  many  soldiers  followed  him  to  Asia  ?  Where  did  he  gain  the  first  victory  ? 
Who  saved  his  life  ? 


57 

had  pierced  the  other.  He  conquered  Asia  Minor.  The  Asiatic 
Greeks  deserted  to  him  ;  he  gave  them  democratic  constitutions. 
The  next  year  he  a  second  time  vanquished  Darius,  whose  army 
amounted  to  about  600,000  men,  at  Issus  (in  the  defiles  of  CiHcia), 
{333  ^-  C.)  The  loss  of  the  Persians  was  estimated  to  amount  to 
100,000  men.  Their  rich  encampment  became  the  prey  of  the 
victor.  The  mother  and  wife  and  daughters  of  Darius  were  also 
taken  prisoners.  Alexander  treated  them  all  with  clemency.  Darius 
complained,  by  writing,  of  his  unjust  attack,  and  offered  him  his 
friendship.  Alexander  replied  that  he  considered  himself  to  be  the 
sovereign  of  Asia,  and  demanded  unconditional  submission  of  the 
king.  He  then  passed  victoriously  through  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Palestine 
and  Egypt.  All  these  lands  submitted ;  Tyrus  alone  made  resist- 
ance. It  defended  itself  most  valiantly  during  seven  months.  As 
the  king  at  first  did  not  have  any  ships,  he  raised  a  dam  in  the  sea 
in  order  to  get  to  the  city  on  the  island.  The  besieged  exhausted 
all  means  that  courage  and  despair  suggested  to  them,  in  order  to 
save  themselves  ;  they  killed  the  hostile  workmen,  burned  both  the 
towers  built  for  their  protection,  and  the  machines  of  war ;  divers, 
under  the  water,  cut  the  cables  by  which  the  rafts  and  boats  were  fast- 
ened ;  they  erected  a  new  wall  around  the  city  behind  the  old,  etc. 
Finally,  Alexander  himself  thought  that  it  was  impossible  to  conquer 
the  city,  still  he  tried  a  last  assault.  He  succeeded,  and  the  fortress 
was  taken  (332  B.  C.)  The  fate  of  the  inhabitants  was  horrible  ; 
8,000  men  were  killed,  30,000  sold  as  slaves,  and  the  city  burned. 

In  Egypt,  the  victor  founded  the  city  of  Alexandria,  which  soon 
became  the  center  of  universal  commerce;  in  later  time,  also 
the  principal  seat  of  scientific  culture.  From  here  he  proceeded  to 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Amnion,  in  the  oasis  Siwah,  in  order  to  be 
declared  the  son  of  the  god,  and  the  priest  declared  him  so. 

Darius  made  new  preparations  for  the  combat,  but  lost  the  decis- 
ive battle  at  Arbela,  not  far  from  Nineveh ;  almost  the  fifth  part  of 
his  army,  composed  of  more  than  half  a  million  of  men,  perished 
by  the  swords  of  the  victors.     Alexander  conquered  Babylon,  Susa 

Where  and  when  did  he  again  vanquish  Darius  ?  What  was  the  loss  of  the 
Persians  ?  Who  was  captured  ?  How  did  Alexander  treat  the  royal  prisoners  ? 
What  did  he  demand  of  the  king  ?  What  other  lands  did  he  conquer  ?  What 
city  resisted  him?  How  long?  By  what  means  did  the  city  defend  itself? 
What  was  its  fate,  when  taken  ?  What  city  did  Alexander  found  in  Egypt  ? 
What  of  Jupiter  Amnion  ?  Where  did  Darius  lose  the  last  battle  ?  How  large 
was  his  loss  ?     What  cities  did  Alexander  capture  ? 


58 

and  Persepolis,  the  capitals  of  the  Persian  empire.  Darius  retired 
into  the  northern  provinces,  but  the  former  also  followed  him  there. 
The  satrap  Bessus  killed  the  fugitive  and  assumed  the  royal  title, 
but  Alexander  vanquished  him,  and  ordered  his  execution.  After 
this  he  also  conquered  the  northern  and  eastern  provinces. 

Flushed  with  the  success  of  his  enterprises,  he  began  to  domi- 
neer like  a  despot.  He  established  the  barbarous  punishments  of 
the  Persian  kings  (mutilations,  spearing,  killing  by  sunstrokes,  etc.) 
At  one  of  the  usual  carousals,  where  riot  ran  high,  his  flatterers 
praised  his  exploits  and  extolled  them  over  those  of  Hercules. 
Clitus  contradicted  them,  and  reminded  the  king  that  he  had  saved 
his  life,  etc.,  etc.  Incensed,  the  latter  called  for  arms.  Clitus  was 
forced  out  of  the  hall.  He  returned,  however,  and  again  poured 
invectives  against  Alexander.  Furious,  the  king  snatched  a  javelin 
from  the  hand  of  a  bystander  and  struck  Clitus,  who  fell  dead  at  his 
feet.  He  also  ordered  the  execution  of  Parmenio,  his  best  general 
and  most  faithful  servant,  and  his  son — the  latter,  because  he  was  ac- 
cessory to  a  conspiracy  ;  the  former,  because  Alexander  was  afraid 
of  paternal  vengeance.  Alexander  surrounded  himself  with  a  showy 
retinue,  and  demanded  divine  veneration.  He  imprisoned  Callis- 
thenes,  a  philosopher,  because  he  refused  to  adore  him,  and  permitted 
him  to  perish  miserably.    He  fell  out  also  with  his  teacher,  Aristoteles. 

Not  yet  satisfied  at  having  conquered  so  many  lands,  he  marched 
to  India  (327  B.  C),  and  advanced  victoriously  as  far  as  the  waters 
of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges.  Nay,  he  wanted  to  march  to  the 
end  of  the  earth,  but  his  soldiers  refusing  to  follow  him  further,  he 
consented  to  return.  He  sent  the  fleet  back  on  the  Indian  ocean, 
and  led  the  land  forces  himself  through  the  Persian  deserts,  where 
they  suftered  indescribable  fatigues  (325  B.  C.)  The  soldiers  sank 
into  the  hot  sand,  and  the  sun's  rays  burned  them  so  severely  that 
blood  was  forced  from  their  eyes  and  mouth.  Many  became  insane 
through  pain.  They  were  also  in  want  of  water.  The  march  lasted 
sixty  days.     Most  of  the  soldiers  perished  miserably. 

When  he  had  returned  to  Babylon,  he  endeavored  to  check  the 
disturbances  which  had  spread  during  his  absence.  He  dispensed 
rigorous  justice  to  the  despotic,  squandering  governors,  and  quelled 

Who  killed  Darius  ?  What  changes  took  place  in  the  behavior  of  Alexander 
after  his  success  ?  How  did  he  treat  Clitus,  Parmenio  and  his  son,  and  Callis- 
thenes  ?  How  far  did  he  march  into  India  ?  Why  not  farther  ?  Give  an  ac- 
count of  his  return  to  Babylon,  and  how  he  endeavored  to  civilize  the  conquered 
lands. 


59 

the  revolts  of  the  troops.  He  organized  the  government  in  the 
conquered  lands,  and  tried  to  accustom  the  subdued  nations  to 
assume  Grecian  culture  and  manners.  He  also  considered  the  im- 
portance of  commerce,  and  provided  all  means  which  could  advance 
it.  He  caused  colonies  to  be  founded,  roads  to  be  built,  etc.,  etc. 
After  some  years  of  rest,  he  contemplated  new  conquests,  but  he 
suddenly  died  (323  B.  C.)  He  tenderly  loved  his  faithful  friend, 
Hephaestion,  and  after  his  death  erected  a  splendid  monument  in 
his  honor. 

Immediately  after  Alexander's  death  such  a  fierce  war  com- 
menced among  his  generals,  who  contended  for  the  possession  of 
his  realm,  that  even  the  burial  of  his  corpse  was  forgotten.  All  the 
members  of  his  family  were  killed.  The  bloody  contest  was  decided 
at  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia  (301  B.  C),  and  several  kingdoms  were  now 
established,  the  three  most  important  of  which  were  Macedonia, 
with  Greece;  Syria,  with  most  of  the  Persian  lands;  and  Egypt. 

ROMAN  REPUBLIC— 510-30  B.  C. 


1.    CONTESTS    WITH    FOREIGN    ENEMIES    AND    WITH    THE    PATEICIANS- 
510  TO  ABOUT  343  B.  0. 

^  26.   War  Against  the  Tarquinians.     Porsenna.    Hora- 
tius  Codes.    Mucius   Scaevola. 

Tarquinius  attempted,  by  cunning  and  force,  to  recover  the  lost 
dominion.  First  his  deputies  arrived  in  Rome,  reclaiming  his 
domains,  but  in  secret  they  entered  into  a  plot,  in  which  many 
noble  young  men  and  even  the  sons  of  Brutus,  took  part.  A 
slave,  who  secretly  watched  their  deliberations,  informed  the  con- 
suls of  them.  The  criminals  were  seized  and  executed.  Brutus, 
being  consul,  was  himself  the  judge  of  his  sons.  The  two  youths, 
in  his  presence,  were  tied  to  a  stake,  undressed  by  the  lictors  (ser- 
vants of  the  tribunal),  flogged  with  rods,  and  beheaded.  During 
the  execution  all  the  bystanders  looked  at  the  unhappy  father ;  he 
was  deeply   affected ;  still   he  beheld,   unmoved,   the  blood  of  the 

Who  was  his  friend  ?  How  did  he  honor  him  ?  How  did  his  generals  act 
after  his  death  ?  Where  was  their  contest  decided  ?  Which  were  the  most  im- 
portant kingdoms  then  established  ?  ^  26.  How  long  did  the  contests  of  the 
Romans  against  foreign  enemies  and  the  patricians  last  ?  How  did  Tarquinius 
first  attempt  to  recover  his  lost  domains  ?  How  did  Brutus  behave  at  the  execu- 
tion of  his  sons  ? 


60 

youths  flowing.  Tarquiniiis  did  not  regain  his  domains,  but  they 
were  distributed  among  the  poor  citizens.  The  slave  who  had  dis- 
covered the  plot  received  his  liberty  as  a  reward. 

Porsenna,  seeing  his  ruse  baffled,  attempted  to  attain  his  purpose 
by  arms.  He  found  allies  in  Hetruria.  The  first  battle  was  obsti- 
nate and  remained  drawn.  Brutus,  bravely  fighting,  met  a  son  of 
Tarquinius,  and  both  stabbed  each  other.  Then  Porsenna,  the  most 
powerful  prince  in  Hetruria,  arrived  with  a  strong  army  at  the  doors 
of  Rome,  and  gained  a  victory  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber.  He 
nearly  entered  the  city  with  the  fugitives.  But  (as  some  report) 
Horatius  Codes,  with  two  fellow-combatants,  defended  the  wooden 
bridge  till  a  part  was  pulled  down ;  then  the  two  withdrew  and 
he  alone  remained,  defending  himself  boldly,  till  it  was  wholly 
demolished.  Thereupon  he  plunged  into  the  Tiber,  and  swam 
unhurt  to  his  fellow-citizens. 

Porsenna  then  besieged  the  city.  A  famine  was  raging  in  Rome. 
The  king  expected  the  surrender  every  day.  Now  Mucins,  later 
called  Scaevola  (the  left-handed),  formed  a  plan  to  kill  the  king. 
Armed  with  a  poniard,  which  was  hidden  under  his  garments,  he 
went  into  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  The  pay  was  just  being  dis- 
tributed among  the  soldiers,  and  there  was  much  crowding.  The 
king  was  seated  near  his  secretary.  Mucius,  being  afraid  to  ask 
which  of  the  two  was  the  king,  drew  his  dagger  and  struck  the 
latter,  whom  he  thought  to  be  the  king,  owing  to  his  gorgeous 
vestments,  and  killed  him.  Too  late  he  perceived  his  mistake. 
He  was  seized,  and  the  king  threatened  him  with  death  by  fire ; 
but  Scaevola,  wishing  to  prove  how  little  he  cared  for  this  punish- 
ment, deliberately  put  his  arm  into  the  flames  of  the  altar  near 
by  and  suffered  it  to  be  slowly  burned.  The  king,  dumb-founded 
by  admiration,  gave  him  liberty ;  but  Scaevola,  seemingly  through 
gratitude,  made  the  unfounded  statement  to  him  that  three  hun- 
dred Romans,  including  himself,  had  sworn  to  kill  him.  Fright- 
ened by  this  communication,  Porsenna  made  peace.  He  took  as 
security  for  the  fulfillment  of  its  conditions,  ten  youths  and  ten 
maidens  as  hostages.  Cloelia,  their  companion,  persuaded  the 
other  girls  to  flee.  Under  the  pretext  of  wanting  to  bathe  they 
escaped    and   swam,    amid  a  shower   of  hostile    arrows,  over    the 

How  did  he  lose  his  life  ?  What  success  did  Porsenna  experience  ?  What 
is  reported  of  Horatius  Codes?  What  of  Mucius  Scaevola?  How  did  he 
punish  himself?  Why  did  Porsenna  make  peace  ?  What  of  Cloelia  and  the 
other  hostages  ? 


61 

Tiber,  The  Romans  sent  the  bold  maidens  back  at  once.  Por- 
senna,  admiring  their  courage,  gave  liberty  to  Cloelia  and  permitted 
her  to  ask  the  release  of  some  of  her  playmates.  She  selected  the 
youngest,  and  returned  joyfully  to  her  parents.  According  to 
other  reports,  Porsenna  took  possession  of  the  city,  and  compelled 
the  Romans  to  pay  a  high  price  for  peace. 

Many  Latin  cities  still  took  up  arms  for  the  expelled  Tarquinius. 
The  people,  who  suffered  much  from  the  wars,  refused  to  take  the 
field.  The  patricians  granted  a  respite  to  the  poor  citizens,  who 
were  oppressed  by  debts,  and  a  dictator  was  appointed,  with  unlim- 
ited power.  The  Romans,  fighting  with  the  ardor  of  patriotism, 
vanquished  these  enemies  also  (496  B.  C.) ;  two  sons  of  the  king 
were  among  the  killed.  A  reconciliation  afterwards  took  place 
between  the  Latins  and  the  Romans,  and  Tarquinius,  being  a  very 
aged  man,  and  having  lost  all  his  sons,  did  not  again  attempt  to 
reascend  the  throne. 

^  27.      Domestic     Feuds    Bet\A^een    the    Patricians    and 
Plebeians.     Appointment  of  Tribunes. 

Liberty  was  now  firmly  secured  against  its  enemies  abroad,  but 
at  home  it  was  diminished  by  the  patricians.  These  possessed  the 
most  riches,  and  alone  made  use  of  the  public  lands.  During  the 
frequent  campaigns  the  poor  plebeian  had  to  leave  his  small  field 
uncultivated,  or  had  to  sell  it  in  order  to  be  able  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  the  campaign,  as  every  one  was  obliged  to  provide  his 
own  arms  and  provisions.  After  the  war  he  found  his  field  wild, 
and  thus  with  his  family  fell  into  oppressive  poverty.  He  was  then 
obliged  to  take  recourse  to  the  rich  patricians,  pay  high  interest  for 
the  money  they  loaned  him,  and  if  he  could  not  discharge  these 
debts  he  was  imprisoned  and  forced  to  sell  his  land,  or  even  him- 
self and  his  children,  to  the  creditor. 

These  tyrannical  acts  of  the  aristocrats  caused  many  disturb- 
ances in  the  city.  As  the  city  again  was  warring  with  the  neigh- 
boring nations,  an  old  man  made  his  appearance  in  the  market- 
place, dressed  in  rags,  pale  and  starving,  with  unkempt  beard  and 
hair.  Crowds  of  people  assembled  around  him  and  recognized 
him  to  be  a  gallant  captain.     He  related  that  he  had  to  neglect  his 

Give  an  account  of  the  war  of  the  Romans  against  the  Latins,  g  27.  How 
were  the  plebeians  used  by  the  patricians  ?  Give  an  example  of  tlieir  ill-will. 
Who  made  his  appearance  in  the  market-place  ?  What  did  he  i-elate  and  show 
to  the  people  ? 


62 

field  for  the  sake  of  the  campaign,  and  that  the  enemies  had 
burned  and  plundered  all  his  property.  In  this  way  he  had  run  in 
debt  and  passed  into  servitude,  where  he  was  treated  cruelly.  Thus 
speaking,  he  bared  his  back,  which  showed  traces  of  the  cruel  treat- 
ment he  had  undergone.  Then  a  revolt  broke  out  and  raged 
through  the  city,  and  the  people  refused  to  do  military  service  until 
relief  had  been  obtained.  The  next  year  the  same  spectacle  occur- 
red again.  The  patricians,  though  promising  to  the  people  to  lessen 
their  burdens,  refused,  after  the  war,  to  fulfill  their  promise.  At  last, 
being  tired  of  this  tyranny,  the  people  set  out  to  the  sacred  moun- 
'  tain,  near  Rome,  intrenched  a  camp,  and  elected  their  own  com- 
mander (494  B.  C.)  Here  they  also  intended  to  found  their  own 
town,  and  forever  separate  from  the  haughty  patricians.  This 
action  on  the  part  of  the  plebeians  changed  the  minds  of  the  patri- 
cians, and  they  now  became  milder.  They  remitted  to  their  debt- 
ors all  they  owed,  released  the  indebted  servants,  and  granted  to 
the  people  tribunes,  whom  they  were  to  select  from  among  them- 
selves, in  order  that  their  rights  might  be  taken  care  of.  Since 
then  the  people  carried  on  a  regular  contest  with  the  patricians 
for  the  equality  of  all  rights.  The  tribunes  were  the  indefatigable 
champions  of  the  people  in  this  struggle,  leading  them  from  victory 
to  victory.  First,  they  brought  it  about  that  they  were  permitted 
to  choose  also  one  of  the  consuls  (though  only  from  the  patricians), 
(482  B.  C.)  Then  they  effected  the  abolition  of  the  law  which 
prohibited  the  intermarriage  of  patricians  and  plebeians  (445  B.  C.) 
One  year  after,  the  first  time  military  tribunes,  with  consular  power, 
were  elected,  who  could  also  be  taken  from  the  plebeians.  A  long  time 
afterwards  (366  B.  C),  they  obtained,  by  a  continuous  struggle,  the 
right  that  the  consuls  might  also  be  chosen  from  the  plebeians. 
Finally,  they  wrenched  the  last  privilege  from  the  patricians,  viz., 
the  exclusive  occupation  of  the  priesthood  (300  B.  C.)  One  of  the 
tribunes,  Licinius  Stolo,  carried  the  agrarian  law,  as  it  is  termed 
(^66  B.  C.)  According  to  this  law,  no  citizen  could  possess  more 
than  500  acres  of  the  public  lands,  and  the  patricians  who  had 
more  had  to  return  the  excess,  which  was  divided  among  the  ple- 
beians. Public  lands  generally,  in  the  future,  were  likewise  to  be 
held  by  the  latter. 

What  was  the  effect  of  this  scene  ?  Give  a  narrative  of  the  secession  of  the 
plebeians.  What  ofificers  did  the  patricians  then  grant  to  them  ?  To  what  other 
offices  were  the  plebeians  admitted  later?  Define  the  agrarian  law.  Which 
tribune  carried  it  ? 


63 

§  28.  Coriolanas.  Quinetius  Cincinnatus.  The  XII  Tables 
and  the  Decemvirs.     Incursion  of  the  Gauls. 

During  the  last,  just  mentioned  sedition,  the  people  had  neg- 
lected the  tillage  of  the  fields,  and  now  want  of  victuals  followed ; 
finally,  a  great  quantity  of  grain  arrived  from  Sicily.  Some  senators 
would  have  it  distributed  to  the  people  for  nothing,  or  at  least  sold 
at  a  low  price;  but  Coriolanus,  a  young  patrician,  opposed  this, 
motioning  to  again  deprive  the  people,  on  this  occasion,  of  the 
tribuneship,  and  of  the  other  already  granted  rights.  The  people 
became  enraged  when  they  heard  the  news  of  this  motion,  and  de- 
manded that  Coriolanus  should  be  punished  for  high  treason.  The 
tribunes  appointed  the  day  of  the  trial.  Coriolanus,  foreseeing  his 
condemnation,  left  Rome  of  his  own  accord,  without  waiting  for  the 
sentence,  but  vowing  terrible  revenge  on  the  people.  He  went  over 
to  the  Volsci,  instigated  them  to  wage  war  against  Rome,  and  led 
their  army  there.  He  laid  waste  the  lands  of  the  plebeians,  but 
spared  the  estates  of  the  patricians.  The  city  was  panic-stricken. 
An  embassy  of  the  senate,  who  left  it  to  him  to  return  to  his  coun- 
try, and  a  solemn  procession  of  priests  went  into  the  camp  of 
Coriolanus,  but  had  no  success.  Finally,  his  wife  with  his  sons  and 
his  mother,  Veturia,  Avith  other  venerable  matrons,  made  their 
appearance  before  him.  The  sight  of  his  family  brought  tears  to 
his  eyes.  But  when  Veturia  reproached  him  for  his  ingratitude  to- 
wards his  country,  and,  together  with  his  wife  and  children,  knelt 
and  embraced  his  knees,  he  cried  out;  agitated  :  "Helas,  mother, 
what  have  you  done !  You  have  gained  a  victory  which  is  happy 
for  the  country,  but  pernicious  for  me.  Vanquished  by  you  alone, 
I  withdraw."  He  then  led  the  enemies  away  from  Rome,  and 
probably  was  a  sacnfice  of  their  vengeance.  According  to  another 
report,  he  killed  himself.  The  Volsci  were  vanquished,  the  same  as 
the  Aequi. 

In  the  war  with  the  latter,  Quinetius  Cincinnatus  became  re- 
nowned. As  they  had  beaten  the  Romans,  he  was  chosen  dictator. 
The  deputies  of  the  senate,  who  informed  him.  of  his  election, 
found  him  following  the  plow  in  his  little  field.  He  hastened  to 
Rome,  and  from  there  against  the  enemies,  whom  he  vanquished. 

^  28.  Why  did  Coriolanus  banish  himself  ?  Where  did  he  go  to  ?  How  did 
he  deal  with  the  plebeians  ?  With  the  senate  ?  With  the  priests  ?  With  his 
wife  and  mother  ?  What  answer  did  he  give  to  the  latter  ?  What  was  his  end  ? 
How  did  Quinetius  Cincinnatus  become  renowned  ? 


64 

After  sixteen  days  he  returned  to  his  field  and  resumed  his  agricul- 
tural labors. 

In  order  to  check  the  arbitrary  proceedings  of  the  patricians, 
who  alone  administered  justice,  the  Roman  people  demanded  writ- 
ten laws.  Three  senators  were  therefore  sent  to  Greece,  in  order  to 
collect  the  laws  in  existence  there.  Upon  their  return  ten  men, 
styled  decemvirs,  were  appointed  to  select  and  digest  suitable  laws, 
and  for  the  term  of  their  work  were  invested  with  absolute  power 
(452  B.  C.)  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  which 
formed  the  basis  of  the  celebrated  code  of  Roman  laws,  composed 
in  later  times.  But  the  decemvirs,  after  having  finished  their  work, 
refused  to  resign  their  power,  and  began  to  play  the  part  of  tyrants. 
The  people  became  dissatisfied,  and  a  sad  event  caused  a  speedy 
termination  of  their  offices.  Appius  Claudius,  the  leading  member 
of  their  body,  would  part  Virgmia,  the  daughter  of  Captain  Virgin- 
ius,  a  brave  plebeian,  from  her  father,  pretending  that  she  was  the 
fugitive  slave  of  his  client,  who  reclaimed  her  in  court.  Her  be- 
trothed, and  her  father,  who  had  hastened  from  the  camp  to  the 
city,  in  vain  defended  her  at  the  tribunal  of  the  tyrant.  Appius 
adjudges  the  virgin  to  his  client,  and  orders  that  the  grumbling  peo- 
ple be  forcibly  repelled  from  the  tribunal.  Virginius  then  seizes  a 
butcher-knife,  taken  from  a  neighboring  shamble,  and  plunges  it 
into  the  breast  of  his  daughter,  whom  he  can  no  longer  protect,  and 
summons  the  people  and  the  army  to  take  vengeance  on  the  tyrants 
(449  B.  C),  who  were  obliged  to  resign.  Appius  was  dragged  into 
prison,  where  he  is  said  to  have  killed  himself,  and  the  others,  of 
their  own  accord,  left  the  country.  Fifty  years  after  this  foreign 
enemies,  the  Gauls,  again  threatened  Rome  with  entire  ruin. 

They  had  long  before  this  opened  a  passage  through  the  Alps, 
and  had  settled  themselves  in  the  northern  part  of  Italy.  They  ad- 
vanced more  and  more  to  the  south,  and  demanded  permanent 
dwelling  places  from  the  Clusians,  in  Hetruria.  The  Clusians  asked 
the  assistance  of  the  Romans,  who  sent  embassadors  to  make  peace 
between  both  parties.  The  embassadors,  however,  assisted  the  in- 
habitants, fighting  against  the  Gauls.     These  demanded  from  the 

What  people  did  he  vanquish?  How  long  did  his  campaign  last  ?  Where- 
fore were  decemvirs  appointed  ?  What  laws  did  they  compose?  By  what  event 
were  their  offices  terminated  ?  Who  was  Appius  Claudius  ?  Virginius  ?  What 
insult  did  the  former  plan  against  the  latter  ?  How  did  Virginius  prevent  it  ? 
What  of  the  decemvirs  ?  Of  Appius  Claudius  ?  What  was  the  cause  of  the 
war  of  the  Gauls  against  Rome  ? 


65 

Roman  senate  that  they  deliver  up  the  embassadors,  and  this  being 
refused,  marched,  led  by  Brennus,  against  the  Romans,  vanquished 
them  near  the  rivulet  Allia  (390  B.  C),  and  entered  empty  Rome. 
According  to  the  report,  they  found  there  only  eighty  senators  at 
the  forum,  where  they  were  seated  in  their  curule  chairs  (chairs  of 
office),  keeping  a  solemn  silence.  They  anticipated  nothing  but 
death,  and  received  it.  Brennus  burned  the  city  to  ashes,  and  be- 
sieged the  capitol,  into  which  the  warlike  troops  of  the  Romans  had 
retired.  The  Gauls  were  about  to  take  this  also,  for  several  had,  in 
the  night,  gained  the  summit,  but  the-  cackling  of  the  geese  of  the 
Juno  is  said  to  have  awakened  the  slumbering  Romans  and  called 
them  to  arms.  ManHus  now  first  hurries  up  to  the  walls,  kills  a 
Gaul  who  stands  already  upon  the  top,  and  throws  another  head- 
long down  the  precipice.  Meanwhile  more  Romans  approach,  and 
repel  the  Gauls.  The  siege  was  protracted;  famine  and  disease 
gained  ground,  but  the  brave  Camillus  saved  his  country.  He  lived 
then  in  Ardea,  not  far  from  Rome,  unjustly  banished.  Appointed 
dictator,  he  hastily  approached  to  the  relief  of  the  besieged  compa- 
triots. These  were  about  to  surrender  to  the  enemies.  Brennus  ex- 
acted one  thousand  pounds'  weight  of  gold.  The  sum  is  brought. 
The  Romans  complain  that  he  is  weighing  with  false  weights. 
Without  answering,  he  throws  his  sword  into  the  balance.  At  this 
moment  Camillus  appears  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  declares  the 
contract  null  and  void,  adding  that  "Rome  must  be  ransomed  by 
steel,  and  not  by  gold."  He  immediately  attacked  the  Gauls,  and 
completely  routed  them.  According  to  another,  more  credible  re- 
port, the  Gauls  came  to  an  agreement  with  the  Romans,  and  left 
Rome  unimpeded,  because  an  invasion  of  the  Veneti  urged  them  to 
return  home.  Rome  soon  began  to  rise  again  from  its  ashes. 
ManHus,  who  had  saved  the  capitol,  at  length  aiming  at  sovereign 
power,  was  thrown  headlong  from  the  same  rocks. 

2.    CONTESTS  TOR  THE  DOMINION  IN  ITALT-343-267  B,  0. 


I  29.  War  Against  the  Samnites  and  Latins.     A  Ronnan 

Army  Passes   Under  the  Yoke  in  the 

Caudine  Mountains. 

Until  the  Gaulic  war,  the  territory  of  the  Romans  was  limited 
to  some  miles  around  the  city.     After  that  they  subdued  the  greater 

Who  was  their  leader  ?  What  fort  did  Brennus  besiege?  In  what  manner  is 
it  reported  to  have  been  saved?  What  of  Manlius  ?  How  did  Brennus  plunder 
the  Romans  ?  Who  prevented  their  surrender  ?  How  was  Manlius  at  last  pun- 
ished ? 

(5) 


66 

part  of  middle  Italy,  then  lower  Italy.  There  the  Samnites,  during 
fifty  years,  made  the  most  valiant  resistance.  They  lived  in  the 
mountainous  country  of  the  Apennines,  were  brave,  and  loved  lib- 
erty. Capua,  in  Campania,  occasioned  the  war  in  this  wise :  The 
Samnites,  extending  their  conquests,  attacked  Capua.  This  city 
sought  aid  from  Rome.  As  the  Romans  were  confederated  with 
the  Samnites,  they  first  admonished  them  in  a  friendly  manner  to  do 
no  harm  to  Capua.  But  the  Samnites,  paying  no  heed  to  that, 
desolated  Campania.  The  Romans  then  declared  war  against 
them,  vanquished  and  compelled  them  to  sue  for  peace  (340  B.  C.) 

Meanwhile,  the  Latins  demanded  from  the  Romans  that  they 
be  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  highest  offices  of  Rome;  they 
wanted  to  unite  and  become  one  nation  with  them.  As  the 
Romans  refused  to  accede  to  their  demand,  they  took  up  arms. 
The  former  were  commanded  by  Titus  Manlius  Torquatus  and 
Decius  Mus.  Manlius  issued  orders  that  death  should  be  inflicted 
upon  any  one  who  should  leave  the  ranks.  The  Latin  commander 
challenged  to  single  combat  any  Roman  knight.  Titus  Manlius, 
son  of  the  consul,  accepted  the  challenge,  and  slew  his  adversary. 
His  father  caused  him  to  be  crowned  for  this  exploit,  but  afterwards 
to  be  beheaded  on  account  of  his  disobedience.  In  the  decisive 
battle  (:^;^S  B.  C),  the  wing  of  Decius  gave  way.  He  caused  the 
priests  to  consecrate  him  for  death,  rushed,  on  his  war-horse,  into 
the  midst  of  the  enemies,  and  was  slain.  These  gave  way  and  the 
Romans  gained  a  complete  victory.  The  Latins  were  beaten  once 
more;  then  they  submitted  again.  Rome  granted  citizenship  to 
some  of  their  cities. 

The  Romans  endeavored  to  extend  their  dominion  more  and 
more.  In  the  midst  of  peace  they  founded  a  colony  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Samnites.  As  they  would  not  abolish  it,  the  Samnites 
again  took  up  arms  (326  B.  C.)  The  Romans  advanced  victori- 
ously, haughtily  rejecting  all  offers  of  peace.  Fortune  now  for- 
sook their  arms,  as  they  were  surrounded  in  the  Caudinse  Furculas 
(321  B.  C.)  Pontius,  the  brave  commander  of  the  Samnites,  had 
occupied  all  the  mountain  roads,  and  there  was  nowhere  a  way  to 

§  29.  What  differences  caused  the  first  war  between  the  Romans  and  the 
Samnites  ?  What  city  did  the  Samnites  attack  ?  W^ere  they  successful  ?  Why 
did  the  Latins  take  up  arms  against  the  Romans  ?  What  fate  did  Titus  Man- 
lius experience  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Consul  Decius  Mus  ?  What  was  the 
result  of  the  war  ?  How  did  the  second  war  against  the  Samnites  originate  ? 
What  adversity  happened  to  the  Romans  in  Caudinse  Furculse  ? 


67 

pass  out.  The  Samnites  then  dismissed  the  Roman  army,  upon  the 
solemn  promise  of  the  consuls  that  the  peace  and  former  alHance 
should  be  re-enacted ;  but  it  had  to  pass  under  the  yoke  formed  by 
two  spears  set  upright  and  a  third  bound  across  them.  This  shame- 
ful doom  was  submitted  to  by  between  40,000  to  50,000  Romans. 
The  Roman  senate  annulled  the  agreement,  and  sent  the  generals 
who  had  arranged  it  back  in  fetters  to  the  Samnites.  These,  how- 
ever, justly  provoked  m  consequence  of  such  perfidy,  did  not 
receive  the  delivered  officers,  but  demanded  that  the  whole  Roman 
army  should  be  returned  to  captivity.  This  was  not  done ;  the 
same  army,  rather,  marched  against  them  once  more.  The  war  was 
carried  on  with  much  more  hatred.  The  Samnites  underwent  many 
bloody  defeats.  One  district,  one  place,  one  plantation,  one  vine- 
yard after  another  were  ruined.  At  last  they  sued  for  peace ;  they 
obtained  it,  but  they  were  obliged  to  acknowledge  Rome's  sover- 
eignty (304  B.  C.) 

After  several  years  the  Samnites  recommenced  war  for  the  third 
time;  Ihey  fought  more  bravely  than  ever,  and  menaced  even 
Rome.  The  Gauls,  the  Hetrurians,  and  other  nations  of  Italy  were 
their  allies.  Nevertheless,  they  were  again  defeated  several  times, 
and  their  country  was  terribly  desolated.  In  the  decisive  battle 
(295  B.  C),  in  which  the  Gallic  cars,  furnished  with  scythes,  were 
horribly  mowing  down  the  soldiers,  Consul  Decius,  the  son,  caused 
hmiself  also  to  be  consecrated  for  death,  and  perished.  The 
Romans  gained  the  victory.  The  Samnites  armed  three  armies 
more,  but  they  were  all  vanquished.  Pontius  himself  was  taken 
prisoner ;  and,  with  his  hands  tied  to  his  back,  conveyed  in  triumph 
to  Rome.  The  Romans,  far  from  honoring  his  valor,  ordered  him 
to  be  beheaded.  Finally,  the  Samnites  demanded  peace;  they 
obtained  it,  but  on  grievous  conditions  (290  B.  C.)  Their  allies, 
too,  were  at  last  subjected. 

§  30.    Tarentine  War.     Fabricius. 

After  the  Samnites,  it  was  the  turn  of  lower  Italy  to  be  con- 
quered*. Here  the  Tarentines  themselves  gave  to  Rome  an  oppor- 
tunity of  war.  The  Roman  fleet  made  its  appearance,  contrary  to 
an  old  treaty,  in  their  gulf.     The  Tarentines  attacked  it,  sank  sev- 

Who  was  the  leader  of  the  Samnites  ?  Who  annulled  the  agreement  ?  What 
misfortune  and  final  fate  befell  the  Samnites  ?  Who  gained  the  victory  in  the 
third  war  ?  Who  sacrificed  his  life  ?  What  of  Pontius  ?  §  30.  State  the 
origin  of  the  Tarentine  war. 


68 

eral  ships,  and  put  the  others  to  flight.  When  the  Romans  de- 
manded satisfaction,  a  petulant  crowd  insulted  their  embassadors. 
The  Romans  then  sent  an  army  against  the  Tarentines.  The  latter 
called  on  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  for  help.  He  came  with  a  con- 
siderable army  and  twenty  elephants.  The  Samnites  also  were  their 
allies.  In  the  first  batde  (280  B.  C),  the  king,  skilled  in  military  tac- 
tics, gained  the  victory,  chiefly,  as  they  say,  by  the  aid  of  the 
elephants,  whose  unusual  aspect  frightened  their  horses  and  threw 
the  Romans  into  confusion.  Fifteen  thousand  dead  Romans  cov- 
ered the  battle-field.  Pyrrhus  also  suffered  a  great  loss.  Then  he 
marched  to  Latium  and  approached  Rome,  but  was  greatly  fright- 
ened as  another  Roman  army  suddenly  advanced  against  him. 
On  peeing  himself  threatened  in  front  and  in  the  rear,  he  retired 
quickly  to  Tarent,  where  he  passed  the  winter. 

He  desired  to  make  peace  with  the  valorous  enemy,  and  there- 
fore sent  embassadors  to  Rome,  who  spoke  with  such  eloquence  that 
the  senate  hesitated  whether  or  not  to  accept  the  conditions  offered. 
Now,  the  blind  Appius  Claudius  caused  himself  to  be  carried  into 
the  assembly,  and  spoke  with  such  energy  against  the  advice  of 
the  embassadors,  that  the  unanimous  answer  was  given  to  them  that 
the  conclusion  of  peace  would  be  out  of  the  question  as  long  as  the 
king  had  not  quitted  Italy. 

One  of  the  members  of  the  embassy  which  should  treat  with 
Pyrrhus  about  the  exchange  of  the  captives,  was  Caius  Fabricius. 
He  lived  contentedly,  and  though  having  administered  the  highest 
offices,  yet  he  was  very  poor.  All  his  plate  consisted  of  one  little 
goblet.  The  king  offered  him  a  rich  present  in  order  to  show  how 
highly  he  respected, him;  but  he  refused  it.  It  is  also  reported  that 
Pyrrhus,  to  test  his  celebrated  presence  of  mind,  ordered  his  largest 
elephant  to  be  hidden  behind  a  curtain.  When  the  conference  had 
been  finished,  the  curtain,  at  a  given  signal,  was  withdrawn,  and  the 
elephant  stretched  his  trunk  over  the  head  of  the  Roman.  Pyrrhus 
carefully  watched  his  countenance;  but  Fabricius,  smiling,  said: 
*'  Your  elephant  frightens  me  as  little  to-day  as  your  money  enticed 
me  yesterday." 

In  another  battle,  lasting  two  days,  Pyrrhus  was  again  victorious. 

Who  was  the  ally  of  the  Tarentines  ?  By  whose  aid  did  Pyrrhus  gain  the 
first  battle  ?  How  many  Romans  were  killed  ?  Where  did  Pyrrhus  then  march 
to  ?  Why  did  he  retire  ?  How  were  his  embassadors  received  in  Rome  ? 
Delineate  the  character  of  Caius  Fabricius.  Relate  an  example  of  his  frugality; 
of  his  intrepidity  and  honesty. 


69 

but  he  lost  so  many  soldiers  that  he'  exclaimed:  "  One  more  vic- 
tory like  this  and  I  am  lost !  "  As,  the  next  year,  Fabricius  marched 
against  him  with  a  new  army,  the  physician  of  the  king  (according 
to  common  report)  sent  him  a  letter,  the  import  of  which  was  that 
for  a  proper  reward  he  would  poison  the  king.  Fabricius,  indignant 
at  so  base  a  proposal,  gave  immediate  information  of  it  to  Pyrrhus, 
who,  astonished,  exclaimed  :  "  It  is  easier  to  turn  the  sun  from  his 
course,  than  Fabricius  from  the  path  of  honor."  The  king  is  said 
to  have,  through  gratitude,,  released  all  his  Roman  prisoners  with- 
out ransom.  He  offered  again  to  make  peace,  but  received  the 
same  answer  as  the  first  time.  For  the  prisoners  whom  he  released 
an  equal  number  of  captured  Samnites  and  Tarentines  were  returned 
to  him. 

Pyrrhus  then  withdrew  his  army  from  Italy,  in  order  to  assist  the 
Sicilians  against  the  Carthaginians;  but  he  was  not  successful  in 
Sicily,  and  when  he  returned,  in  obedience  to  the  entreaties  of  the 
Tarentines  and  Samnites,  Curius  Dentatus  defeated  him  totally. 
Dejected,  he  left  Italy  for  ever,  and  returned  to  Greece.  He  was 
killed  there  at  a  siege  by  a  woman,  who  threw  a  stone  at  him. 
Tarentum  had  to  submit  to  the  Romans. 

3.  CONTESTS  FOR  THE  WORLD'S  DOMINION-264-133  B.  0. 


^  81.     Carthage.     First  Punic  War.     Regulus. 

Imperious  Rome,  after  having  accomplished  the  subjection  of 
the  Apennine  peninsula,  contrived  to  make  also  conquests  abroad. 
First  it  waged  war  against  Carthage.  This  city  became  a  colony  of 
the  Phoenicians  in  this  way  :  As  Pygmalion,  king  of  Tyrus,  had  killed 
Dido,  the  husband  of  his  sister,  in  order  to  get  possession  of  his 
riches,  she  escaped  with  them,  and  founded  (about  888  B.  C.)  the 
above  mentioned  city  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa.  Carthage  soon 
rose,  by  its  many  colonies  and  extensive  commerce,  over  the  native 
town.  The  larger  part  of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  besides 
Sardinia,  Corsica  and  a  great  portion  of  Sicily  and  Spain,  were  sub- 
ject to  her.  By  means  of  her  riches,  acq.uired  through  commerce, 
she  could '  maintain  numerous  armies  and  a  powerful  navy.  The 
Carthaginians  (Punians),  only  devoted  to  commerce,  despised  all  arts 

What  was  the  result  of  the  second  and  third  battles  ?  How  did  Pyrrhus  meet 
his  death  ?  ^31.  Narrate  the  circumstances  of  founding  Carthage.  Who  was 
Pygmalion  .''  Dido  ?  What  progress  did  the  city  make  ?  What  countries  did 
it  conquer  ? 


70 

and  sciences  through  which  they  could  not  directly  acquire  gold  and 
treasures.  They  were  deceitful  and  faithless;  hence  the  Roman 
proverb :  "  Punica  fides,  nulla  fides  "  (Punic  faith,  no  faith).  They 
were  also  cruel  and  superstitious.  They  offered  human  sacrifices 
to  Saturnus,  and  mothers  caused  their  own  children  to  be  slaughtered 
for  this  idol. 

The  contest  between  the  Carthaginians  and  Romans  was  first 
brought  on  in  Sicily.  Mercenary  troops  of  Campania  there  had 
murdered  all  citizens  in  Messina  (Messana),  where  they  were 
engaged  in  service,  and  taken  possession  of  the  city.  They  were 
ransacking  the  whole  country.  They  also  invaded  the  territory  of 
Syracuse  and  plundered  it.  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  defeated  them, 
and  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Carthaginians.  The  mercenaries 
asked  the  assistance  of  the  Romans  who,  long  eager  to  possess 
Sicily,  granted  it  to  the  freebooters.  In  this  way  the  first  Punic 
war  was  brought  on  (264  B.  C.)  Hiero  was  quickly  vanquished, 
and  allied  himself,  in  order  to  save  his  lands,  with  the  Romans.  The 
latter  defeated  the  Carthaginians  several  times.  As  they  did  not, 
as  yet,  possess  any  navy,  they  built  in  a  short  time  120  ships,  using 
as  a  model  for  construction  (as  it  is  reported),  a  hostile  ship  which 
had  been  wrecked  on  their  coast.  Consul  Duilius  invented  grap- 
nels, and  a  kind  of  draw-bridge  which  could  be  lowered  on  the  ships 
of  the  enemies.  Under  his  command  the  Romans  gained  their 
first  naval  victory. 

Regulus  even  went  to  Africa.  Meanwhile  the  State  took  care  of 
his  family  and  his  little  field.  He  advanced  victoriously  up  to  the 
doors  of  Carthage.  The  city  was  inclined  to  make  peace,  but  re- 
duced to  the  utmost  by  the  severe  conditions  of  the  Roman  general, 
it  committed  the  command  of  the  army  to  the  Spartan  Xantippus, 
who  had  come  there  at  the  head  of  Greek  mercenary  troops. 
He  defeated  and  captured  Regulus  (255  B.  C.) 

The  Romans  fought  some  years  with  ill  success ;  nevertheless, 
they  rejected  all  offers  of  peace.  The  Carthaginians  (so  it  is  usually 
reported)  sent  Regulus  and  others  to  Rome,  in  order  to  negotiate 
the  exchange  of  their  prisoners.      Before  departing,  however,  he  had 

What  is  related  of  the  faithlessness,  cruelty  and  superstition  of  the  Punians  ? 
Where  was  the  contest  between  them  and  the  Romans  brought  on  ?  In  what 
manner  ?  Who  allied  with  the  latter  ?  What  success  had  they  in  the  contest 
with  the  Carthaginians  ?  What  incident  gave  them  an  opportunity  to  build  a 
fleet?  How  did  Regulus  get  along  in  Africa?  Who  defeated  and  captured 
him  ? 


71 

to  swear  to  return  if  he  should  fail  in  bringing  it  about.  He  dis- 
suaded his  fellow-citizens  from  the  exchange,  because  being  disad- 
vantageous ;  but  faithful  to  his  promise,  he  returned  to  Carthage, 
unmoved  by  the  prayers  of  his  compatriots,  and  by  the  tears  of  his 
wife  and  children.  There  he  was  put  to  death  with  the  most  cruel 
tortures.  In  order  to  take  vengeance,  the  Romans  delivered  up  to 
his  family  the  most  distinguished  captives,  who  were  treated  not  less 
cruelly  than  the  Carthaginians. 

Meantime  the  war  continued  to  rage.  When  the  forces  of  the 
combatants  were  exhausted  and  their  fleets  destroyed,  Carthage 
seized  the  public  treasure,  and  in  Rome  the  patricians  contributed 
voluntary  taxes  ;  in  this  manner  large  new  fleets  were  built.  Finally, 
the  Romans  gained  the  decisive  battle  (242  B.  C.)  and  Carthage  was 
compelled  to  accept  humihating  terms  of  peace.  It  lost  its  part  of 
Sicily  with  all  the  small  adjacent  islands.  This  was  the  end  of  the 
first  Punic  war;  it  lasted  twenty-two  years  (264-242  B.  C.) 

As  three  years  later  the  Carthaginian  mercenaries  in  Sardinia 
mutinied,  the  Romans  sent  troops  there  and  compelled  the  Cartha- 
ginians to  give  up  the  island,  and  to  pay  the  war  expenses  besides. 
Thereafter  they  also  made  a  conquest  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. 

§  32.     Second  Punic  War.     Hannibal.    Battle  at  Cannae. 

The  Carthaginians  sought  to  compensate  themselves  for  the  loss 
they  suffered  in  the  silver-mines  of  Spain.  Hamilcar  conquered  a 
great  portion  of  this  country,  and  sent  big  treasures  to  Carthage. 
Hasdrubal,  his  son-in-law,  continued  the  conquests,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  New  Carthage  (Carthagena),  in  the  vicinity  of  which 
rich  silver-mines  were  located.  Rome  feeling  uneasy  on  account  of 
the  increasing  power  and  greatness  of  its  enemy,  threatened  war, 
and  Carthage  had  to  promise  that  it  would  not  pass  over  the  Ebro, 
the  northern  limit  of  its  possessions. 

After  the  murder  of  Hasdrubal,  Hannibal,  Hamilcar's  son,  Rome's 
•most  formidable  and  most  implacable  enemy,  took  the  command 
(221  B.  C.)  It  is  reported  that,  being  nine  years  old,  he  caressingly 
asked  his  father  to  take  him  along  on  his  expedition  to  Spain,  and 

Why  was  he  sent  to  Rome  ?  How  did  he  discharge  his  commission  ?  How 
did  the  Carthaginians  deal  with  him  after  his  return  ?  Who  gained  the  decisive 
battle  ?  On  what  condition  did  the  Carthaginians  obtain  peace  ?  §  32.  Where 
did  Hamilcar  and  Hasdrubal  make  new  conquests  ?  Who  was  the  son  of  the 
former  ? 


72 

that  he,  leadmg  the  boy  to  an  altar,  made  him  solemnly  swear  per- 
petual enmity  to  the  Romans.     And  Hannibal  kept  his  oath. 

In  spite  of  the  remonstrance  of  the  Roman  embassadors,  he 
besieged  Saguntum,  which,  in  fact,  was  situated  beyond  the  Ebro, 
but  was  allied  with  the  Romans.  He  conquered  the  city  after  a 
siege  of  seven  months  (219  B.  C.)  The  desperate  inhabitants 
burned  their  most  valuable  property,  set  fire  to  the  houses,  and  per- 
ished in  the  flames.  The  Roman  embassador,  Fabius,  therefore 
demanded  the  delivery  of  Hannibal.  As  the  senate  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians acted  evasively,  he  folded  his  toga,  saying :  "  Here  is  war 
or  peace ;  choose  !  "  A  senator  replied :  "  Give  us  what  you 
please  !  "  "  Be  it  war,  then  !  "  cried  the  Roman,  and  let  the  gar- 
ment fall. 

The  most  fervent  desire  of  Hannibal  was  fulfilled.  Without 
delay  he  set  out  from  New  Carthage  (218  B,  C),  and  hastened 
over  the  Pyrenees.  In  the  southern  part  of  France  he  was  obliged 
partly  to  purchase  his  passage  and  partly  to  enforce  it  by  arms. 
He  then  crossed  the  Rhone  and  began  to  ascend  the  Alps  with 
infantry,  cavalry  and  elephants.  As  the  passage  took  place  in  win- 
ter time,  he  had  to  overcome  the  greatest  difficulties.  The  beasts 
had  to  be  led  over  precipices,  snow  and  masses  of  ice,  as  there  were 
no  beaten  paths.  He  also  had  to  fight  with  the  savage  moun- 
taineers. After  nine  days  the  army  arrived  on  the  summit  of  the 
mountains  (probably  the  Little  St.  Bernard).  Here,  in  the  snow- 
fields,  Hannibal  let  his  army  rest  for  two  days,  pointing  out,  in  order 
to  console  the  soldiers,  the  green  plains  of  Italy.  The  difficulties  of 
the  descent  were  not  less.  The  men  and  beasts,  unable  to  obtain  a 
foothold,  slid  on  the  steep,  slippery  paths,  and  many  tumbled  head- 
long into  the  precipices,  or  sunk  into  the  snow,  unable  to  extricate 
themselves.  At  last  they  arrived  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont.  The 
whole  passage  over  the  Alps  had  lasted  fifteen  days.  Of  60,000 
men  with  whom  Hannibal  had  set  out,  not  even  one-half  \yere  left. 

He  met.  the  consul  Scipio  on  the  banks  of  the  Tessin,  attacked 
him  immediately  and  vanquished  him,  especially  through  the  support 
of  his  excellent  Numidian  cavalry  (218  B.  C.)    The  Gauls,  who  had 

What  did  Hannibal  promise,  by  an  oath,  to  his  father?  What  city  in  Spain 
did  he  besiege  and  capture  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  its  inhabitants  ?  How  did 
Fabius  bring  on  the  second  Punic  war  ?  Describe  Hannibal's  march  from  Spain 
through  France  over  the  Alps.  How  many  days  did  it  require  for  him  to  ascend 
the  Alps  ?  How  long  did  the  army  rest  on  the  summit  ?  How  many  men  did 
Hannibal  lose  on  the  march  ?     Whom  did  he  first  defeat  in  Italy  ? 


78 

enlisted  m  the  Roman  army,  after  the  battle,  without  delay,  deserted 
to  Hannibal.  Soon  after,  the  other  consul  (Scipio  still  being  sick 
from  wounds),  ventured  a  second  battle.  Hannibal  chose  such  a 
position  for  his  army  that  a  cold  wind  drove  the  sleet  and  snow  into 
the  faces  of  the  Romans,  and  vanquished  them  completely.  All 
the  Gauls  in  the  upper  Gallia  joined  him.  In  the  next  campaign 
he  advanced  to  Hetruria.  The  Arno  had  flooded  the  land,  and  the 
soldiers  had  to  march  in  the  water,  which  reached  up  to  their 
knees,  for  three  days  and  nights ;  the  beasts  of  burden  were  stuck 
in  the  mud ;  Hannibal  himself  lost  one  eye  from  exertion  and  an 
inflammation  caused  by  the  exhalation  of  the  marshes.  Scarce  stand- 
ing again  on  dry  land,  he  allured  the  consul  Flaminius,  by  simulat- 
ing flight,  into  a  valley  surrounded  by  mountains,  near  the  lake 
Thrasymenus.  Fifteen  thousand  Romans,  surrounded  on  all  sides, 
here  met  their  death.  Flaminius,  in  despair,  killed  himself.  The 
field  of  battle  to  this  day  is  called  the  "bloody  field."  The 
Romans,  in  their  extremity,  appointed  Quintus  Fabius  Maximus, 
ironically  called  the  "  Loiterer,"  as  dictator.  He  saved  them  by 
his  circumspection,  carefully  avoiding  a  decisive  battle. 

The  Romans,  becoming  dissatisfied  with  the  manner  in  which 
Fabius  waged  war,  conferred  an  equal  portion  of  the  chief  com- 
mand upon  Minucius,  general  of  the  calvary,  who  immediately 
attacked  Hannibal,  but  fell  into  an  ambuscade.  Many  Romans 
were  already  cut  down  as  Fabius  hurried  on  to  support  him,  and 
still  saved  him.  The  next  year  the  foolhardy  Varro  engaged  in 
combat  against  Hannibal,  and  lost  the  great  battle  at  Cannae,  in 
Apulia  (216  B.C.)  Fifty  thousand  Romans,  among  them  eighty 
senators,  three  thousand  knights,  and  one  consul  (^milius  Pauflus), 
lost  their  lives.  This  was  the  greatest  defeat  that  the  Romans  ever 
suftered.  Hannibal  is  said  to  have  sent  three  bushels  of  gold  rings 
to  Carthage,  which  the  knights  had  worn  on  their  hands.  Grief 
and  terror  struck  Rome  when  the  news  of  the  awful  calamity  arrived 
there.  There  was  hardly  a  family  in  the  city  which  did  not  mourn 
the  death  of  a  dear  relation.  The  citizens  were  so  much  afraid  of 
the  victor  that  they  wanted  to  abandon  the  city;  and,  in  order  to 
hinder  their  flight,  the  doors  had  to  be  locked.  Most  of  the  allies 
then  seceded ;  in  upper  Italy  the  Gauls  destroyed  a  Roman  army, 

Whom  in  the  second  battle  ?  Whom  in  the  next  campaign  at  Lake  Thra- 
symenus ?  How  many  Romans  met  their  death  there  ?  Who  was  appointed 
dictator  then  ?  Who  engaged  in  the  third  campaign  against  Hannibal  at  Cannse  ? 
W'hat  success  had  Hannibal,  and  what  was  the  effect  of  his  defeat  in  Rome  ? 


74 

and  Philip  II, ,  king  of  Macedonia,  was  about  to  conclude  an  alli- 
ance with  Hannibal.  The  public  •  treasury  was  empty.  However, 
Rome  again  took  courage.  She  rapidly  collected  all  the  forces  still 
left  to  her ;  all  the  gold  and  silver  was  carried  to  the  public  treas- 
ury, and  the  young  men,  the  slaves  and  the  allies  who  still  contin- 
ued to  be  loyal,  were  armed.  Another  army  was  soon  in  the  field. 
The  equipment  of  the  new  fleet  was  maintained  by  the  rich  citizens. 

^  83.    Concluded.     Scipio  Africanus.     Battle  at  Zarna. 

The  Romans  were  afraid  that  Hannibal  would  attack  their  capi- 
tal. He  felt,  probably,  that  his  troops  were  not  strong  enough  to 
undertake  the  siege  of  the  city,  and  desired  first  to  get  the  people 
of  lower  Italy  to  join  him.  They  all  wilUngly  took  part  with  him. 
Then  he  went  into  winterquarters  at  Capua,  expecting  reinforce- 
ments from  home.  But  the  luxury  of  that  city  enervated  his  army, 
and  Carthage  did  not  send  the  support  demanded,  because  the 
domineering  aristocratic  party  there  hated  him.  He  was  ordered  to 
demand  peace  from  Rome,  but  there  his  embassadors  not  even  got 
an  audience.  The  slaves  defeated  a  Carthaginian  army,  and  as  a 
reward  for  their  valor  they  were  liberated;  and  Hannibal  himself 
was  vanquished  the  first  time  by  Marcellus,  at  Nola  (215  B.  C.) 
The  Romans  incited  so  many  enemies  against  his  ally,  Philip  of 
Macedonia,  that  he  had  trouble  enough  to  defend  himself  in  his 
own  land. 

After  that  Marcellus  went  to  Sicily  and  besieged  the  city  of 
Syracuse,  which  had  declared  itself  against  Rome.  It  defended 
itself  two  years  with  the  assistance  of  Archimedes,  the  greatest 
geometer  of  his  age.  Wondrous  things  are  related  of  his  machines ; 
e.  g.,  by  their  aid  he  hurled  huge  stone  blocks  into  the  ships  of  the 
enemy  and  submersed  them,  together  with  their  crews,  in  the  sea. 
At  last,  in  the  night,  while  the  inhabitants,  after  a  merry  festival, 
were  carelessly  sleeping,  the  Romans,  with  the  help  of  a  traitor, 
scaled  the  walls  and  took  the  city  by  storm.  Most  of  the  inhabi- 
tants perished  by  the  sword.  Archimedes  also  was  killed  by  a  sol- 
dier who  did  not  know  him.  Marcellus  ordered  him  to  be  buried 
with  great  honor. 

What  efforts  did  the  Romans  make  in  their  calamity  ?  ^33.  Where  did 
Hannibal  go  into  winterquarters  ?  What  bad  effect  did  this  arrangement  cause  in 
the  discipline  of  his  soldiers  ?  Why  did  Carthage  not  send  him  any  support  ? 
Who  vanquished  him  first?  How  did  Syracuse  defend  itself  against  the 
RomSns  ?  Who  was  Archimedes  ?  How  was  the  city  taken  ?  How  did  Archi- 
medes perish  ? 


75 

,  where  the  Romans  had  for  a  long  time  fought  with  ill 
success,  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  finally  rendered  their  arms  victo- 
rious. This  young  hero,  being  hardly  twenty-four  years  of  age, 
took  New  Carthage  with  immense  spoils  (210  B.  C),  vanquished 
the  Carthaginians,  and  expelled  them  from  all  their  possessions 
(210-206  B.  C.) 

In  the  meantime  Hannibal,  wanting  more  forces,  was  in  Italy 
limited  to  a  defensive  war.  At  last  his  brother  Hasdrubal  conveyed 
to  him  the  long  desired  reinforcements.  He  had  already  safely 
passed  the  Alps ;  but,  arriving  in  Italy,  he  was  totally  beaten  and 
slain  (207  B.  C.)  The  Roman  general  ordered  his  head  to  be 
thrown  into  Hannibal's  camp.  The  latter,  painfully  struck  by  the 
sight  of  the  dear  head,  exclaimed  :  "Now  I  perceive  the  doom  of 
Carthage!"  A  new  army  sent  by  Carthage  was  not  more  success- 
ful, and  at  last  Scipio  sailed  into  Africa,  where  he  threatened  even 
Carthage  (204  B.  C.)  A  messenger  was  sent  to  Hannibal  to  direct 
him  to  return  immediately  in  order  to  save  the  capital.  He  de- 
parted with  a  sad  heart  from  the  scene  of  his  triumphs.  He  had 
kept  his  ground  in  a  hostile  country  during  sixteen  years  with  an 
army  which,  composed  from  the  most  heterogeneous  nations,  served 
only  for  pay  and  spoils.  Not  the  least  mutiny  had  ever  arisen  in 
his  camp. 

At  Zama  the  two  greatest  generals  of  their  age  were  to  decide 
on  the  field  of  battle  which  of  the  two  most  potent  nations  should 
rule.  Hannibal  foreboded  the  approaching  calamity  of  Carthage. 
He  had  an  interview  with  Scipio,  in  which  he  offered  all  the  foreign 
possessions  of  Carthage  as  the  price  of  peace ;  but  Scipio  refused 
the  proposal,  and  took  up  the  sword.  He  easily  vanquished  the 
mercenaries  of  Carthage.  Hannibal's  veterans  alone  resisted 
bravely.  The  latter  lost  40,000  men,  and,  accompanied  by  a  few 
horsemen,  could  hardly  save  himself  by  flight  (202  B.  C.)  The 
Carthaginians  then  made  peace.  They  had  to  give  up  all  their  pos- 
sessions, except  the  old  territory  in  Africa;  to  deliver  almost  all 
men-of-war,  together  with  all  their  tame  elephants ;  to  give  a  hun- 
dred hostages;  to  pay  10,000  talents  (about  $7,770,000)  ;  to  restore 
to  Masinissa,  king  of  Numidia  and  ally  of  the  Romans,  all  the  land 

Who  rendered  the  Romans  victorious  in  Spain  ?  What  failure  did  Hasdrubal 
experience?  What  did  his  brother  say  when  he  saw  his  head?  Why  was  he 
obliged  to  quit  Italy  ?  Where  was  the  fate  of  the  two  rival  nations  decided  ? 
And  when  ?  Mention  some  circumstances  of  the  battle  at  Zama.  On  what  con- 
ditions did  the  Carthaginians  obtain  peace  ?  What  was  the  effect  of  the  second 
Punic  war  on  the  cultivation  of  Italy  ? 


76 

they  had  taken  from  him  or  his  ancestors ;  finally,  to  promise  to 
make  no  more  war  without  permission  of  the  Romans.  Scipio's  re- 
turn to  Rome  resembled  a  triumphal  procession.  The  most  magni- 
cent  triumph  that  Rome  had  ever  seen  was  decreed  to  him,  and  the 
surname  of  Africanus  bestowed  upon  him.  To  be  sure,  Carthage 
was  now  overthrown,  but  Italy  also  was  laid  waste,  and  nevermore 
rose  to  the  flourishmg  condition  in  which  it  had  been  before  the 
second  Punic  war. 

§34.     Subjugation     of    Macedonia,    Syria     and     Greece. 
Death  of  Hannibal.    Third  Punic  War.     Destruc- 
tion of  Carthage  and  Corinth.    Scipio,  Junior. 

Immediately  after  having  vanquished  the  Carthaginians,  the 
Romans  also  declared  war  against  Phihp  II.,  king  of  Macedonia, 
and  compelled  him  to  pay  tribute  (197  B.  C.)  His  son,  Perseus, 
renewed  the  combat  (168  B.  C),  but  lost  his  lands,  which  then  be- 
came Roman  provinces.  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  incited  by 
Hannibal  to  wage  war  against  Rome,  was  also  vanquished,  and  had 
to  purchase  peace  with  a  great  loss  of  land  (189  B.  C.) 

Hannibal,  at  the  court  of  this  king  no  longer  safe  against  the 
vengeance  of  the  Romans,  fled  to  Prusias,  king  of  Bythinia,  in  Asia 
Minor.  But  their  hatred  also  followed  him  there,  and  embassadors 
arrived  there  demanding  his  deHvery  (183  B.  C.)  The  king  did  not 
dare  to  oppose  them.  He  ordered  his  soldiers  to  surround  the  house 
in  which  Hannibal  was  living!  The  latter,  noticing  them,  sent 
a  servant  to  see  if  all  the  doors  were  guarded,  who  quickly  re- 
turned, reporting  that  all  outlets  were  seized.  Then  Hannibal  took 
poison,  which  he  had  carried  a  long  time  with  him,  saying,  "Let  us 
free  the  Romans  from  their  disquiet,  since  they  have  not  patience 
to  wait  for  an  old  man's  death."  Scipio  alsp  died  in  the  same 
year,  far  from  Rome,  which  he,  grieved  at  the  ingratitude  of  his 
fellow-citizens,  had  left. 

Meanwhile  Carthage  recovered  from  her  prostration,  and  again 
became  flourishing  and  powerful  by  commerce  and  industry.  The 
Romans  perceived  it  with  envy  and  uneasiness;  therefore  they  re- 
solved upon  the  entire  ruin  of  the  rival.  Masinissa  furnished  the 
opportunity  to  execute  their  purpose.  Since  the  Carthaginians  had 
renounced  the  right  of  waging  war,  this  king  dispossessed  them  by 

§  34.  Which  was  the  next  war  of  the  Romans  ?  What  was  the  doom  of 
Macedonia  and  Syria  ?  How  did  Hannibal  end  his  life  ?  What  king  furnished 
the  opportunity  for  the  third  Punic  war  ? 


77 

degrees  of  many  lands.  Finally,  after  repeated  requests,  Roman 
deputies  arrived,  and  decided  against  them.  One  of  them  was 
Cato,  on  account  of  the  austerity  of  his  morals  called  the  "  Censor," 
He  had  himself  seen  Carthage  regaining  her  former  power  and 
prosperity.  He  represented  in  the  senate  the  danger  which  threat- 
ened Rome  from  that  city.  He  was  so  exasperated  against  it  that 
(according  to  report)  he  concluded  every  speech  in  the  senate  with 
the  words,  *<Fmally,  I  vote  that  Carthage  ought  to  be  destroyed." 
When  Carthage,  at  last,  by  the  right  of  self-defense,  took  up  arms 
against  Masinissa,  again  the  Roman  embassadors  arrived,  pretend- 
ing to  mediate  peace ;  but  as  soon  as  Masinissa  had  vanquished  the 
Carthaginians,  they  unmasked  and  declared  war  against  them  in 
the  name  of  the  Roman  senate.  Terrified,  the  former  declared  that 
they  gave  themselves  up  entirely  to  the  will  and  pleasure  of  the 
Roman  people.  Now  the  senate  wanted  300  children  of  their 
noblest  families  as  hostages.  The  Carthaginians  gave  them. 
Nevertheless,  the  consuls  went  with  an  army  to  Africa  (150  B.  C), 
and  demanded  the  surrender  of  their  ships  and  arms.  They  obeyed 
again.  Their  fleet  was  burned  in  their  presence.  Finally,  they  were* 
ordered  to  quit  their  city,  and  to  remove  into  artother  part  of  their 
dominion,  distant  twelve  miles  from  the  sea.  The  last  condition 
struck  them  with  despair.  Unanimously  they  refused  to  fulfill  it, 
and  prepared  for  the  last  conflict.  There  was  a  want  of  arms. 
They  worked  both  day  and  night  in  order  to  make  new  ones 
from  gold,  silver  and  every  metal.  Bow-strings  were  twisted  from 
the  hair  of  the  women.  The  gables  of  the  houses  were  pulled 
down  and  ships  built  with  them,  the  temples  changed  into  arsenals, 
and  the  children,  slaves  and  criminals  armed.  The  Romans  attacked 
the  city  by  sea  and  land,  but  it  oftered  brave  resistance,  defending 
itself  for  two  years.  When  the  Romans  saw  that  their  arms  were  pow- 
erless, they  committed  the  command  to  Scipio  Junior.  He  first  cut 
ofl"  all  connection  of  the  Carthaginians  with  the  land  (147  B.  C.) 
Then  he  attempted  also  to  stop  up  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  by  a 
mole ;  but  they  dug  a  new  outlet  on  the  other  side  of  the  haven. 

With  whom  did  the  Roman  deputies  side  ?  What  were  the  feelings  of  Cato, 
the  censor,  against  Carthage  ?  "VMien  did  the  Romans  declare  war  ?  To  what 
demands  did  the  Carthaginians  submit  ?  What  was  the  last  order  of  the 
Romans  ?  Did  the  former  obey  it  ?  How  did  they  provide  for  the  wants  of  the 
siege  ?  For  arms  ?  Bow  strings  ?  Ships  ?  How  long  did  they  defend  them- 
selves ?  To  whom  did  the  Romans  then  commit  the  command  ?  In  what  man- 
ner did  Scipio  conduct  the  siege  ? 


78 

Two  walls  are  already  battered  down ;  provisions  are  giving  out ; 
still  they  defy  both  hunger  and  the  sword.  At  last  Scipio  takes  the 
harbor  by  storm  (146  B.  C),  and  enters  during  the  night  the  lower 
city ;  the  upper  and  the  citadel  do  not  yet  surrender.  The  storm- 
ing lasts  six  days  and  six  nights.  On  the  seventh  day  50,000  in- 
habitants beg  for  life.  Their  request  is  complied  with.  Nine  hun- 
dred go  on  fighting,  and  finally  meet  their  death  in  the  flames.  The 
wife  of  Hasdrubal,  the  general  of  the  Carthaginians,  who  cowardly 
had  begged  for  life,  kills  her  children  and  then  rushes  into  the 
flames.  Scipio  destroyed  the  remainder  of  the  city  by  fire.  The 
conflagration  lasted  seventeen  days.  In  this  way  Rome's  rival  was 
utterly  ruined !  In  the  same  year  Corinth  was  also  destroyed,  and 
Greece  reduced  to  a  Roman  province  (see  §  23.)  • 

4.    DOMESTIC  STKUGGLES  AND  DOWNFALL  OF  THE  REPUBLIO-133-30  B.  C 


g  35.    The  Two  Gracchi.     War  with  the   Ciinbri.     War 
with    the    Confederates.     First    Civil     War.      Ma- 
rias and  Sulla.    W^ar  Against  the  Slaves  and 
Pirates.     Against    Mithridates.     Con- 
si5irac>/    of  Catiline.     Cicero. 

The  Romans,  after  having  subjugated  so  many  nations,  turned 
their  arms  against  themselves.  The  epoch  of  the  civil  wars  began. 
The  prelude  to  them  were  the  tumults  raised  against  the  two 
Gracchi.  These  brothers  felt  sincere  pity  for  the  poor,  people,  and 
as  the  patricians  had  again  appropriated  the  greatest  portion  of  the 
State  land  to  themselves,  they  re-estabHshed,  when  being  tribunes, 
the  agrarian  law.  But  the  former  caused  commotions  against- 
them,  and  both  were  slain  with  their  followers  (the  one  138  B.  C. ; 
the  other  121  B.  C.)  Their  memory  was  highly  honored  by  the 
people. 

About  that  time  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones,  probably  German 

V  tribes,  left  their  settlements  in   northern   Germany  and  moved  to 

Gaul  and  Noricum  (Styria).     They  demanded  new  dwelling-places 

from  the  Romans.     As  their  request  was  not  complied  with,  they 

took  up   arms  and  vanquished  several  consuls.     In   Helvetia'  the 

What  parts  of  the  city  did  he  take  at  last  ?  How  long  did  the  storming  last  ? 
How  many  inhabitants  surrendered  ?  How  did  the  remainder,  together  with 
Hasdrubal's  wife,  die  ?  How  long  did  the  conflagration  last  ?  What  other  city 
was  destroyed  the  same  year?  ^35.  Give  an  account  of  the  two  Gracchi;  of 
Cimbri  and  Teutones.     Who  defeated  them  ?     Where  did  they  come  from  ? 


iWL 


79 


Tigurini,  who  had  joined  them,  and  were  led  by  Divico,  defeated 
consul  Cassius  at  the  lake  Geneva,  and  made  the  captives  pass 
under  the  yoke.  The  Teutones  advanced  from  Gaul,  the  Cimbri 
from  Tyrol  to  Italy.  Rome  was  panic-stricken  by  the  immense 
number  of  .the  giant-like  enemies,  and  by  their  horrible  forms. 
Finally,  Manus  saved  the  city.  He  defeated  the  Teutones  at  Aix,  in 
Provence  (102  B.  C.),  and  the  Cimbri  at  Verona  (10 1  B.  C.) 

Soon  after,  Rome  was  endangered  by  its  allies  in  Italy.  They 
unanimously  claimed  citizenship,  and  as  it  was  refused  them,  re- 
solved to  obtain  it  by  fighting ;  the  whole  of  Italy  ought  to  become 
one  republic,  and  Rome  no  longer  be  the  capital.  The  war  com- 
menced (90  B.  C.)  and  was  waged  with  the  greatest  vigor  for  two 
years.  The  best  generals  of  Rome  were  vanquished ;  300,000  war- 
riors, on  both  sides,  lost  their  lives.  Finally,  the  humbled  city 
accorded  to  the  allies  the  rights  of  free  citizens  (88  B.  C.) 

One  year  later  the  first  civil  war  commenced.  Sulla,  leader  of 
the  patricians,  had  been  chosen  commander  against  Mithridates,  king 
of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor;  but  the  people  annulled  the  election,  and 
Marius,  their  favorite,  obtained  the  desired  command.  Sulla,  with 
his  army,  came  into  the  town,  proscribed  Marius  and  his  partisans, 
and  then  marched  against  Mithridates.  The  former  returned  from 
Africa,  whither  he  had  escaped,  and  joined  the  consul  Cinna,  who 
was  attached  to  the  same  party.  Both  vanquished  the  followers  of 
Sulla  in  a  bloody  battle.  Thousands  more  were  killed  in  the  city. 
Marius  soon  after  died  from  the  effects  of  drunkenness,  and  Cinna 
was  slain. 

When  Sulla  returned  from  Asia  (S3  B.  C.)  civil  war  was  recom- 
menced; hundreds  of  thousands  fought  against  him,  but  he  defeated 
them  in  all  places  and  entered  Rome  victorious  (82  B.  C.)  Now 
such  scenes  of  murder  commenced  here  as  were  rarely  ever  seen  on 
earth.  In  the  streets,  the  houses  and  the  temples,  the  blood  of  the 
citizens  was  running.  Six  thousand  captives  were  at  once  killed, 
though  the  savage  had  promised  to  spare  their  lives.  The  rich 
citizens  were  all  proscribed,  the  inhabitants  of  entire  cities  killed  or 
sold,  and  their  estates  divided  among  his  legions.     He  was  for  some 

What  did  they  demand?  From  what  country  did  the  Teutones  advance? 
From  which  the  Cimbri  ?  What  did  the  Roman  allies  of  Italy  claim  ?  How  did 
they  succeed  by  war  ?  Who  waged  the  first  civil  war?  Give  some  particulars 
of  it.  What  revenge  did  Sulla  take  after  his  return  from  Asia  ?  In  Rome  ?  In 
the  country  ? 


80 

years  dictator,  then  he  retired  to  private  life,  and  died  miserably 
from  the  consequences  of  his  luxury. 

Soon  after  the  civil  war  Rome  was  twice  disgraced  by  being 
compelled  to  wage  war — first  against  slaves,  then  against  pirates.  In 
Capua  several  gladiators  broke  forth  from  a  fencing-school ;  their 
number  soon  increased  to  120,000  men.  They  routed  several  armies, 
and  endangered  even  Rome.  At  last  they  were  subdued  (71  B.  C.) 
Besides,  many  pirates  invested  every  sea,  and  brought  Rome  in 
danger  of  a  famine.  In  order  to  get  rid  of  them,  unlimited  power 
of  all  the  land  and  naval  forces  had  to  be  be  conferred  upon  one 
man,  Cayus  Pompeius.  He  cleared  all  seas  from  these  dangerous 
enemies  (67  B.  C),  and  also  completed  the  subjection  of  Mithridates 
(64  B.  C),  excepting  Hannibal,  Rome's  most  formidable  enemy,  who 
for  twenty-six  years  had  pertinaciously  contended  with  the  rulers  of 
the  world.  In  conclusion,  Catiline,  a  talented  but  villainous  patri- 
cian, then  conceived  the  scheme  to  set  Rome  on  fire  and  to  pillage 
it,  to  massacre  the  senate  and  to  render  himself  ruler  of  Italy.  Many 
distinguished  Romans  (Crassus  and  Julius  Csesar,  probably,  too)  par- 
took in  the  conspiracy.  Consul  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero  discovered 
the  complot ;  the  ring-leaders  were  seized  and  executed,  and  Cati- 
line with  his  partisans  killed  in  a  murderous  batde  (62  B.  C.)  Cicero 
received  the  glorious  surname,  "  Father  of  the  Fatherland." 

§  36.     First  Triumvirate.     Ceesar,  Pompey  and  Crassus. 
Second  Civil  War.     Battle  at  Pharsalia. 

As  Pompey  had  returned  from  Asia,  he,  Julius  Caesar  and  Mar- 
cus Crassus  united  for  the  purpose  of  dividing  the  supreme  power 
of  the  State  among  themselves,  and  to  maintain  it  against  every 
adversary.  As  Cato  Junior  (the  Uticenis),  learned  the  news  of 
their  alliance  (triumvirate),  he  exclaimed,  lamentingly :  "  The 
republic  is  undone;  she  has  got  masters!"  Forthwith  Caesar, 
against  the  law,  contrived  to  be  appointed  for  five  years  pro-consul 
of  Gallia.  The  term  of  his  office  was  afterwards  prolonged  to  ten 
years.  Pompey  became,  also  contrary  to  law,  solely  consul,  and  at 
the  same  time  pro-consul  of  Spain,  which  he  committed  to  a  dep- 

What  was  the  cause  of  his  death  ?  Relate  some  circumstances  of  the  war 
against  slaves  and  pirates.  Who  was  commander-in-chief  against  the  latter  ?  Give 
an  account  of  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline.  Who  discovered  it  ?  What  was  the 
purpose  of  the  conspirators  ?  What  was  their  doom  ?  How  did  Catiline  perish  ? 
^  36.  Who  formed  the  first  triumvirate  ?  What  country  did  Julius  Ccesar  con- 
quer ? 


81 

uty,  while  he  himself  remained  in  Rome.  Crassus,  desiring  to 
increase  his  wealth,  ventured  war  against  the  Parthians,  in  Asia,  in 
which  he  was  slain. 

Caesar  completely  conquered  Gallia  beyond  the  Alps  (France), 
and  Belgium  as  far  as  the  lower  Rhine.  He  killed  one  million, 
which  was  about  the  third  part  of  the  inhabitants.  By  the  battle  of 
Autun,  he  compelled  the  Helvetians,  who  were  looking  there  for 
finer  settlements,  to  return  home  (58  B.  C.)  He  also  vanquished 
the  German  races  who,  commanded  by  Ariovistus,  crossed  the 
Rhine,  and  repelled  them  into  Germany. 

When  his  term  had  expired,  he  again  solicited  the  consulship. 
The  senate  ordered  him  to  first  disband  his  army,  and  as  he  did  not 
obey,  declared  him  a  public  enemy,  and  commissioned  Pompey  to 
defend  the  republic.  Now  Caesar  marched  his  legions  to  Italy, 
passing  the  Rubicon,  an  act  deemed  equivalent  to  an  open  declara- 
tion of  war  against  his  country  (49  B.  C.)  Pompey  and  the  senate 
fled  into  Greece.  Caesar  conquered  Italy  without  any  resistance, 
plundered  the  public  treasure  in  Rome,  subdued  Spain,  and  then 
followed  Pompey.  In  the  first  battle  he  was  repulsed,  but  at  Phar- 
salia,  in  Thessaly,  he  gained,  with  the  aid  of  his  German  troops,  a 
complete  victory  (48  B.  C.)  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  where  the 
king  of  that  country  ordered  him  to  be  stabbed.  Caesar  speedily 
followed  there.  The  king  died  fighting  for  his  throne.  Cleopatra, 
his  sister,  became  queen  of  Egypt,  and  Caesar  marched  against 
Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus,  and  son  of  Mithridates,  whose  domin- 
ions he  reduced  with  such  rapidity  that  he  announced  the  result  to 
the  Roman  senate  in  the  well-known  words :  Vetti,  vidi,  vici^  "  I 
came,  I  saw,  I  conquered." 

After  his  return  to  Rome,  he  granted  a  general  amnesty  to  the 
followers  of  Pompey,  and  by  his  clemency  gained  a  strong  hold  on 
the  affections  of  the  people.  Still  there  was  a  large  and  powerful 
party  in  Africa  and  Spain  opposed  to  him.  Passing  over  to  Africa, 
he  vanquished  the  friends  of  liberty,  Cato,  who  commanded  the 
garrison  in  Utica,  seeing  that  the  republic  was  passing  away, 
admonished  his  friends  to  flee,  or  to  implore  Cesar's  clemency. 
He  himself  had  resolved  not  to  survive  the  loss  of  liberty.     After 

Where  was  Crassus  slain-?  What  did  the  senate  order  Cresar  to  do  when  he 
solicited  the  consulship  ?  Where  did  he  march  then  with  his  legions  ?  De- 
scribe his  public  actions  in  Italy,  Spain  and  Greece. .  Where  did  he  vanquish 
Pompey  ?  How  did  the  latter  die .''  How  did  Ctesar  succeed  against  Pharnaces  ? 
In  Africa  ?     Delineate  the  death  of  Cato  Uticenis. 

(6) 


82 

having  conversed  with  them  on  philosophical  topics,  he  retired  to 
his  bed-chamber,  read  Plato's  book  on  the  immortaUty  of  the  soul, 
and  then  killed  himself  by  running  against  his  sword. 

Caesar,  after  his  return,  lavished  rich  presents  on  the  army  and 
citizens  of  Rome.  Every  soldier  received  about  seven  hundred 
dollars ;  every  citizen,  fifteen  dollars,  and  every  inmate  the  rent  for 
one  year.  Besides,  all  the  people  were  boarded  at  22,000  tables. 
He  vanquished  also  his  last  enemies,  the  sons  of  Pompey  (45  B.  C), 
and  celebrated  a  solemn  triumph  over  his  overwhelmed  fellow- 
citizens.  He  had  sacrificed  200,000  human  lives  in  order  to  found 
a  monarchy.  The  venal  senate  made  him  dictator  for  life,  gave  his 
name  to  the  month  m  which  he  was  born,  declared  his  person  to  be 
sacred,  and  erected  his  statue  in  the  capitol,  where  it  was  to  be  ven- 
erated Hke  those  of  the  gods. 

Afterwards,  Caesar  assumed  the  air  of  absolute  king  and  ruler, 
though  he  tried  to  promote  the  prosperity  of  the  State  by  many 
useful  institutions.  He  distributed  the  offices  and  honors  among  his 
flatterers  as  he  pleased,  and  treated  the  most  eminent  men  with  con- 
tempt. He  endeavored  even  to  obtain  the  royal  crown,  and  there- 
by committed  a  crime  which,  by  the  Roman  law,  was  punished 
with  death.  The  day  was  already  fixed  on  which  the  senate  was  to 
offer  him  the  diadem;  but  this  day  happened  to  be  his  day  of 
death.  More  than  sixty  men,  among  them  the  most  eminent  citi- 
zens, had  formed  a  conspiracy  for  his  assassination.  They  were 
headed  by  Brutus  and  Cassius.  Publicly,  in  the  presence  of  the  full 
senate,  he  was  to  die.  As  soon  as  he  appeared  there  (the  15th 
of  March,  44  B.  C),  the  conspirators  surrounded  his  golden  chair, 
and  one  of  them  requested  him  to  pardon  his  banished  brother ;  the 
others  seconded  the  request.  As  Caesar  refused  to  comply  with  the 
demand,  the  former  forcibly  pulled  his  toga  from  his  shoulder,  and 
another,  whose  name  was  Casca,  stabbed  him  with  his  dagger. 
This  was  the  signal  for  a  general  attack.  He  first  defended  himself, 
but  when  he  saw  Brutus,  to  whom  he  always  had  been  kind,  draw- 
ing his  dagger  also,  he  gave  up  further  resistance ;  he  covered  his 
face  and  fell,  pierced  with  twenty-three  wounds,  at  the  base  of 
Pompey's  statue. 

Describe  Ceesar's  munificence  towards  the  arreiy  and  the  citizens  in  Rome. 
What  adversaries  did  he  last  vanquish?  What  honors  did  the  senate  confer 
upon  him  ?  By  what  actions  did  he  betray  his  design  to  become  king  ?  Give  an 
account  of  the  conspiracy  against  him.  What  two  men  were  at  its  head  ?  Who 
stabbed  him  first  ?     When  did  he  give  up  further  resistance  ? 


83 

§  37.      Second    Triumvirate.      Antonius.      Oetavius    and 
Lepidus.     Third  Civil  War.     Battle  at  Actium. 

The  servile  people  received  the  news  of  their  deliverance  indif- 
ferently. When  Caesar's  funeral  was  celebrated,  the  cunning  An- 
tony lifted  up  his  bloody  robe  before  the  assembled  people  and 
pointed  out  the  wounds  of  the  corpse.  At  the  same  time  he  deliv- 
ered a  fervent  eulogy  to  the  memory  of  Caesar,  and  read  to  the 
audience  his  will,  by  which  a  sum  of  money  was  provided  for  every 
citizen.  By  such  artifices  he  provoked  the  populace  so  that  they 
seized  fire-brands  from  the  burning  funeral-pile  in  order  to  set  also 
the  houses  of  the  conspirators  on  fire.  These  were  obliged  to  has- 
tily leave  Rome.  Then  Oetavius,  Caesar's  adopted  son,  eighteen 
years  old,  made  his  appearance  to  take  possession  of  the  great  heri- 
tage his  foster-father  had  left  to  him.  As  Antony  withheld  it  from 
him,  he  declared  war  against  him.  The  senate  and  people  sided 
with  him,  and  Antony  was  vanquished  in  battle  at  Mutina  (Modena). 
But  as  the  senate  refused  the  consulate  to  Oetavius,  the  two  adver- 
saries were  reconciled,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Lepidus,  in 
order  to  annihilate  the  republican  party. 

First  they  killed  thousands  in  Rome,  among  them  Cicero,  and 
grasped  their  treasures.  Cicero  was  betrayed  to  the  assassins  sent 
to  dispatch  him  by  one  of  his  own  domestics ;  but,  tired  of  life,^  he 
forbade  his  servants  to  defend  him,  and  yielded  himself  to  his  fate 
without  a  struggle.  Antony  and  Oetavius  then  set  out  to  meet 
Brutus  and  Cassius,  who,  by  this  time,  had  assembled  a  great  army, 
and  vanquished  them  at  Philippi  in  two  battles  (42  B.  C.)  Both 
generals  destroyed  themselves.  They  were  called  the  two  last 
Romans.  The  victors  now  divided  the  Roman  empire  like  booty. 
Antony  received  the  Orient,  Oetavius  the  western  provinces,  and 
Lepidus,  Africa.     The  latter  was  afterwards  deprived  of  his  share. 

Antony  passed  over  into  Egypt,  and,  at  the  court  of  Cleopatra 
indulged  in  luxury.  When  he  gave  away  even  Roman  provinces  to 
her  and  her  children,  the  senate  decreed  (as  Oetavius  had  desired 
long  ago)  his  removal,  and  declared  war  against  Cleopatra.  Antony 
was  vanquished  at  Actium,  in  the  Ionian  Sea  (31  B.  C.)     Cleopatra, 

^  37.  How  did  the  people  receive  the  news  of  their  deliverance  ?  Describe  the 
devices  practiced  by  Marc  Antony  at  the  funeral.  What  of  the  conspirators  ? 
Of  Oetavius  ?  What  men  united  for  the  second  triumvirate  ?  Why  ?  Give 
some  proofs  of  their  cruelty.  How  did  Cicero  die  ?  Where  did  they  vanquish 
Brutus  and  Cassius  ?  How  did  they  divide  the  booty  ?  Where  did  Antony  pass 
his  time  ?     Against  whom  did  the  senate  declare  war  ?     Why  ? 


84 

who  had  accompanied  Antony,  overcome  with  anxiety,  departed 
from  the  scene  of  action,  and  the  infatuated  Antony,  as  soon  as  he 
saw  that  the  queen  had  fled,  hastily  followed  her.  His  land  forces, 
some  days  later,  surrendered  to  the  victor,  who  pursued  the  fugi- 
tives to  Egypt,  where  Antony  put  an  end  to  his  own  Hfe.  When 
Cleopatra,  who  had  shut  up  herself  in  her  palace,  found  that  Octa- 
vius  designed  to  spare  her  only  to  adorn  his  triumph,  she  caused  a 
poisonous  viper  to  be  applied  to  her  arm,  and  thus  followed  Antony 
in  death.  Octavius  was  now  left  sole  master  of  the  Roman  world. 
Rome  ceased  forever  to  be  a  republic. 


SECOND  OflAPTEE-HISTOKY  OP  CIVILIZATION. 


§  38.     Constitution,   Moral,   Social   and   Military    Condi- 
tion of  the  Roman  State. 

Since  the  expulsion  of  the  kings  two  consuls  in  Rome  were  at 
the  head  of  the  government.  They  were  the  commanders  in  war ; 
the  term  of  their  office  was  limited  to  one  year.  In  critical  times 
dictators,  with  unlimited  power,  were  elected.  The  prcntors  admin- 
istered the  judicial  power.  The  ceitsors  kept  the  lists  of  property  of 
the  people,  and  superintended  the  public  morals.  The  tribunes 
were  the  representatives  of  the  people ;  they  could  annul  the  de- 
crees of  the  senate  by  their  veto.  There  were  also  military  trib- 
unes. The  proconsuls  and  proprcetors  were  the  governors  of  the 
conquered .  provinces.  The  senate,  especially,  had  control  of  the 
foreign  affairs  of  the  State. 

Until  the  institution  of  tribunes  (493  B.  C.)  the  people  voted, 
in  matters  of  importance,  either  in  comitia  curiata,  or  centuriata ; 
but  they  effected  voting  in  comitia  tributa,  in  which  the  citizens 
singly  voted.  In  this  way  the  aristocratic  constitution  of  Rome 
became  democratic.  First  the  plebeians  were  excluded  from  high 
public  offices ;  later,  they  obtained,  by  their  efforts,  also  access  to 
these.     (See  §  27.) 

In  the  earlier  times  of  the  republic,  the  Romans  excelled  by 
frugality,  industry,  parsimony  and  strict  morality.  Since  the  for- 
eign wars  they  grew  worse  and  worse.  All  the  wealth  of  the  con- 
Give  a  description  of  the  battle  at  Actium.  How  did  Antony  and  Cleo- 
patra end  their  lives  ?  Who  became  then  lord  of  the  Roman  world  ?  \  38. 
Give  the  names  of  the  officers  in  the  Roman  republic?  What  of  voting  in 
comitia  curiata,  centuriata  and  tributa  ?  Which  of  these  were  most  democratic  ? 
How  were  the  morals  of  the  Romans  in  the  early  times  of  the  republic  ?  How 
in  later  times  ? 


85 

quered  countries  flowed  into  Rome,  whereby  the  morals  were  cor- 
rupted. The  largest  part  of  the  people,  through  these  causes,  re- 
mained so  poor  that  it  was  necessary  every  week  to  distribute  bread 
among  them.  Wealthy  private  individuals  also  amused  them  by 
games  and  theatrical  representations.  The  care  of  agriculture  was 
left  to  the  slaves.  Laws  were,  amid  combats,  given  and  repealed ; 
offices  were  sold ;  injustice  prevailed  in  the  courts. 

The  number  of  Roman  slaves  was  exceedingly  great.  Out  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  milHons  of  inhabitants  of  the  Roman 
dominion,  almost  half  belonged  to  his  unhappy  class  of  men. 
Many  Romans  owned  over  ten  thousand.  Many  physicians  and 
actors,  and  even  most  of  the  teachers  and  tutors,  were  slaves.  The 
doom  of  the  Roman  subjects  was  also  severe.  They  had  to  bear 
the  public  burdens,  and  were  frequently  plundered  by  the  governors 
of  the  provinces,  who  imposed  upon  them  all  kinds  of  heavy  taxes. 

The  military  constitutions  of  the  Romans  were  excellent. 
Their  legions,  which  numbered  from  ten  thousand  to  twelve  thousand 
men,  were  composed  of  infantry  and  a  corps  of  cavalry.  Their 
military  signs  represented  eagles,  which  were  carried  upon  poles. 
The  military  discipline  was  very  severe;  they  punished  not  only 
with  drubs,  but  even  with  death.  Entire  legions  were  sometimes 
decimated,  every  tenth  man  being  punished  with  death.  Rewards, 
however,  brought  about  greater  effects  in  the  Roman  soldier  than 
punishments.  He  who  saved  a  citizen  was  rewarded  with  a  crown 
of  oak  leaves.  The  generals  obtained  magnificent  triumphs.  The 
vanquished  enemies  were,  as  a  general  rule  in  ancient  time,  reduced 
to  slavery. 

^  39.     Arts     and    Seienees.     Julian    Calendar.     Senools. 
Public  Games.     Commerce. 

In  Greece,  the  arts  and  sciences  celebrated  their  golden  era 
under  Pericles.  He  patronized  them,  adorned  Athens  with  master- 
pieces of  architecture,  sculpture  and  paintmg,  celebrated  splendid 
games  and  pastimes,  and  his  administration  formed  an  era  of  great 
internal  splendor  and  magnificence.     With  the  loss  of  liberty,  the 

Who  took  care  of  agriculture  ?  How  was  justice  administered?  Were  there 
many  Roman  slaves  ?  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Roman  subjects?  Give 
an  account  of  the  military  institutions  of  Rome,  of  the  legions,  military  signs, 
discipline,  punishments,  rewards  and  triumphs.  ^  39.  Under  whose  govern- 
ment did  the  arts  and  sciences  most  flourish  in  Greece  ?  When  did  their  lustre 
decrease  ? 


86 

arts  and  sciences  also  began  to  decline.  During  the  combat  for 
the  conquests  which  Alexander  had  left,  the  first  Ptolemies  opened 
for  them  a  quiet  asylum. 

The  public  buildings  of  the  Greeks,  such  as  temples,  theaters, 
and  gymnasia,  were  magnificent.  The  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi, 
of  Jupiter  in  Olympia,  of  Diana  in  Ephesus,  and  of  Minerva  in 
Athens,  were  renowned.  To  the  latter  splendid  porticos  led  which 
formed  a  marble  gate,  with  five  lofty  thoroughfares  and  side  build- 
ings, which  were  reached  by  a  grand  flight  of  stairs.  The  Romans 
were  incomparable  in  the  construction  of  aqueducts,  high-roads 
and  bridges. 

The  greatest,  thus  far  not  excelled  statuaries  of  the  Greeks  were 
Praxiteles  and  Phidias.  The  latter  created  the  colossal  statues  of 
Jupiter  in  Olympia,  and  of  Minerva  in  Athens.  Zeuxis,  Parrhasius, 
and  Apelles  belonged  to  the  most  celebrated  painters.  Alexander  of 
Macedonia  permitted  only  the  latter  to  paint  him.  Poesy,  too,  pre- 
eminently flourished  in  Greece.  Pindar,  of  Thebes,  composed  the 
most  sublime  hymns  and  odes;  Anacreon,  the  sweetest  social  songs; 
^schylos,  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  wrote  the  best  tragedies;  Aris- 
tophanes, the  wittiest  comedies.  The  theatrical  representations,  to 
which  artistical  dances  and  music  were  always  joined,  made  an  un- 
speakable impression  on  the  spectators,  of  whom  frequently-  30,000 
were  present.  But  they  also  caused  enormous  expenses,  and  were 
therefore  managed  by  the  States.  They  were  only  performed  on 
occasion  of  national  festivals. 

Eloquence^  in  free  Greece,  attained  the  highest  degree  of  per- 
fection ;  it  flourished  especially  in  Athens.  Themistocles,  Alcibi- 
ades,  Isocrates,  ^^schines,  and  at  the  head  of  all,  Pericles  and  Demos- 
thenes, were  the  great  orators  of  this  city.  With  regard  to  Pericles, 
the  Athenians  said  that  he  bore  thunder  and  lightning  upon  his 
tongue.  Once  he  delivered  a  consolatory  oration  to  the  parents 
whose  sons  had  fallen  in  a  battle.  All  the  auditors  were  deeply 
aflected.  At  the  end  of  the  delivery,  the  mothers,  with  joyful  im- 
petuosity, hastened  to  the  orator  and  tendered  him  wreaths.  Demos- 
thenes trained  himself  with  the  greatest  zeal  for  the  vocation  of  a 
public  orator.  His  breath  was  short,  and  his  voice  feeble,  and  he 
could  not  distinctly  pronounce  the  letter  r.     In  order  to   correct 

How  were  the  public  buildings?  Give  examples.  Statuaries?  What 
statues  did  Phidias  form  ?  Painters  ?  Writers  of  hymns,  tragedies  and  come- 
dies ?  Delineate  the  theatrical  representations  of  the  Greeks.  Orators  ?  Give 
particulars  of  Pericles  and  Demosthenes.     Roman  orators?     Greek  historians? 


87 

these  faults,  he  proceeded  to  the  beach  of  the  ocean,  and  endeav- 
ored to  outcry  the  roaring  billows ;  he  took  pebbles  into  his  mouth 
and  tried,  in  spite  of  this  impediment,  to  speak  distinctly ;  he  went 
up  precipitous  mountains,  reciting,  with  strong  voice,  long  speeches. 
He  occupied  an  underground  room,  where  he  placed  himself  before 
a  large  mirror  and  exercised  in  mimics  and  pantomime.  In  this 
way  he  became  the  first  orator  of  antiquity.  The  best  Roman  ora- 
tors were  Hortensius,  called  the  king  of  the  forum,  and  Cicero,  who 
was  contending  with  Demosthenes  for  the  palm  of  superiority. 

Among  the  many  Greek  historians,  Herodotus,  Thucydides  and 
Xenophon  occupy  the  highest  place.  The  first  described  the  Per- 
sian wars,  the  second  the  greater  part  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and 
Xenophon  the  continuation  of  the  Grecian  history,  commencing  at 
the  latter  war.  Among  the  Romans,  Julius  Caesar  wrote  the  history 
of  the  Galhc  and  second  civil  war :  Sallustius,  that  of  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline. 

In  philosophy,  too,  the  preference,  among  the  ancient  nations, 
belongs  to  the  Greeks.  Among  tli^  olden  philosophers  Pythagoras 
became  remarkable  by  estabfishing  a  league  of  virtue  in  lower  Italy. 
Its  members  performed  in  secret  a  peculiar  divine  worship,  studied 
mathematics  and  other  sciences,  and  attempted  to  improve  the 
public  governments.  Their  endeavors  succeeded  for  some  time,  but 
the  blind  multitude  rose  in  tumult  against  them,  and  they  were  partly 
killed  and  partly  expelled. 

,  Socrates  surpassed  all  his  predecessors  in  practical  wisdom  (see 
§  2i).  His  scholar,  Plato,  was  the  most  renowned  philosopher  of 
antiquity  ;  Aristoteles,  a  pupil  of  the  latter,  excelled  by  the  variety 
of  his  knowledge.  He  earned,  especially  in  the  natural  sciences,  a 
high  desert. 

The  Stoics,  so  called  from  stoa^  a  porch  in  Athens,  where  Zeno, 
the  founder  of  their  school,  taught,  declared  virtue  to  be  the  supreme, 
nay,  the  only  real  good.  The  Epicureans,  on  the  contrary,  befieved 
that  mental  and  physical  welfare  is  the  highest  good.  The  Cynics 
despised  sensual  pleasure,  riches,  and  prerogatives  of  birth.  They 
gave  frequent  offense  to  the  good  manners  of  society.    Among  them 

What  did  Herodotus,  Thucydides  and  Xenophon  write  ?  What  Julius  Caesar 
and  Sallustius?  Describe  the  school  of  Pythagoras.  What  sciences  did  his 
disciples  study  ?  What  did  they  attempt  to  improve  ?  Did  they  succeed  ? 
What  philosopher  surpassed  all  in  practical  wisdom  ?  Who  was  his  most  re- 
nowned pupil  ?  How  did  Aristoteles  excel  ?  Mention  the  first  principle  of  the 
Stoics;  of  the  Epicureans  ?     What  of  the  Cynics  ? 


Diogenes  of  Sinope  was,  by  his  ingenious  and  witty  remarks,  most 
known.  Even  Alexander  the  Great  paid  him  a  visit,  and  admired 
him  so  much  that  he  exclaimed  :  "  If  I  were  not  Alexander,  I  should 
like  to  be  Diogenes."  One  day,  as  he  came  from  Sparta  to  Athens, 
somebody  asked  hmi  where  he  came  from.  "  From  the  dwellings  of 
men  into  the  apartments  of  the  women,"  was  his  reply.  Among  the 
Romans,  Cicero  deserved  best  of  philosophy.  In  his  main  work  he 
discusses  human  duties. 

All  the  Grecian  philosophers  also  applied  themselves  to  mathe- 
matics. Euclides  and  Archimedes  excelled  in  these  sciences.  Thales 
and  Pythagoras  were  also  astronomers.  A  mathematician  of  Alex- 
andria (Sosigenes)  commissioned  by  JuHus  Caesar,  computed  the  solar 
year  more  accurately.  He  fixed  its  duration  at  365  days ;  every 
fourth  year  one  day  should  be  interpolated.  The  greatest  Grecian 
physician  was  Hippocrates,  who  made  his  appearence  in  Athens  dur- 
ing the  great  pleague. 

The  Grecian  schools  were  in  ancient  times  the  best.  The  works  of 
the  best  poets  formed  the  ground-work  of  the  national  culture  of  the 
Greeks.  In  the  gymnasia,  bodily  exercises  prevailed;  still,  lan- 
guage, eloquence,  and  philosophy  were  also  taught.  They  con- 
tained large  court-yards  with  porticos,  careers,  bathing-rooms,  etc. 
Books,  in  ancient  times,  were  very  scarce  and  very  dear.  There  were 
nevertheless  many  public  libraries ;  the  two  largest  existed  in  Alex- 
andria. 

Public  games  were,  in  Greece,  generally  customary.  At  Olympia, 
Delphi,  Nemaea,  and  on  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  national  games  were 
celebrated.  Every  Greek  freeman  was  admitted  to  them.  They 
drew  together  an  immense  concourse  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  and 
numbers  even  from  foreign  countries.  During  their  celebration 
every  feud  was  suspended ;  even  the  most  bitter  enemies  met  there 
fraternally.  The  exercises  practiced  were  leaping,  running,  throw- 
ing, boxmg  and  wrestling  ;  also  horse  and  chariot  races.  The  benches 
upon  which  the  spectators  were  sitting,  rose  like  terraces.  The 
victors  received  wreaths,  crowns,  triumphal  processions,  and  other 
rewards  of  honor.     Poets,  musicians,  orators  and  philosophers  also 

Who  among  them  was  most  known  ?  Mathematicians  ?  How  did  Sosigenes 
compute  the  solar  year  ?  Who  excelled  most  among  the  Roman  philosophers  ? 
What  was  the  name  of  the  greatest  Grecian  physician  ?  What  instruction  was 
imparted  in  the  Grecian  schools  ?  How  were  they  constructed  ?  What  of 
books  ?  Delineate  the  public  games  of  the  Greeks.  What  exercises  were  prac- 
ticed there  ? 


89 

made  their  appearance  at  the  games,  and  gained  applause  and  prizes 
of  honor  by  their  performances.  The  most  renowned  games 
were  the  Olympian ;  they  lasted  five  days.  The  Greeks  also  com- 
puted their  time  by  them — an  Olympiade  signifying  a  period  of 
four  years. 

In  regard  to  commerce,  Carthage,  especially,  was  renowned  at 
the  beginning  of  this  period.  The  establishment  of  Alexandria 
opened  to  it  a  new  career.  This  city,  under  the  first  Ptolemies,  was 
the  center  of  universal  commerce.  The  Arabian  Sea  was  connected 
with  it  by  the  Nile,  to  which  a  canal  and  a  highway  led,  so  that  the 
merchandise  of  India  came  over  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  and  from  there  to  the  European  countries.  This  commer- 
cial way  continued  to  be  used  until  the  passage  to  the  East  Indies 
by  sea  was  discovered.  In  the  next  period  Constantinople  also 
became  an  important  commercial  place. 

EXERCISES. 

Describe  the  life  of  the  following  men,  according  to  the  points  of  view  here 
given :  i.  Themistocles — {a)  as  youth,  {h)  as  hero  and  statesman,  {c)  as  enemy 
of  his  country.  2.  Aristides — {a)  in  the  battle  of  Marathon,  (<5)  in  the  battles 
at  Salamis  and  Platoeoe,  {c)  after  the  Persian  wars,  {d)  proofs  of  his  love  of  jus- 
tice and  contentment.  3.  Hannibal's  achievements  and  actions — {a)  in  Spain, 
{b)  in  Italy,  (r)  in  Africa,  {d)  in  Asia.  4.  Comparative  representation  of  the 
actions  of  the  two  Brutus ;  the  elder  Brutus — {a)  as  Rome's  deliverer,  (^)  as 
father,  (r)  as  commander;  the  junior — {a)  as  Rome's  deliverer,  {b)  as  general. 
5.  A  similar  comparison  of  the  two  Scipios,  6.  Gather  the  scattered  traits  of 
the  life  of  Pelopidas.  By  what  exploits  and  incidents  in  life  did  Aristides  and 
Camillus  resemble  each  other?  What  countries  did  the  Romans  possess  at  the 
end  of  this  period  ?  Which  conqueror  rose  with  them  at  the  same  time,  about 
343  B.  C.  ?  Which  two  cities  did  they  destroy  in  the  same  year  ?  Which  two 
celebrated  heroes  died  in  the  same  year ;  and  when  ?  Which  internal  causes 
brought  about  the  loss  of  liberty  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ?  When  did  the 
sciences  and  arts  celebrate  their  golden  era  in  Greece  ?  Who  was  the  greatest 
orator  among  the  Greeks  ?     Who  among  the  Romans  ? 

Where  were  the  most  renowned  games  ?  What  rewards  did  the  victors  re- 
ceive ?  What  two  cities  were  most  renowned  for  commerce  ?  How  was  the 
Arabian  Sea  connected  with  the  Mediterranean  ?  What  city  in  the  next  period 
also  became  an  important  commercial  place  ? 


90 

THIRD    PERIOD. 

Frorr]     Emperor    Augustus    to    the    Great     Migration    of 

Nations,     The   Romaq   Empire  aqd    its   Decay. 

Victory    of    Christianity.      From    30 

B.  C.    to    375    A.  D. 


FIEST  OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL  HISTORY. 


ROMAN    EMPIRE. 


^  40.     Augustus   and  the   Emperors   from    his   Descent. 

Rome  had  subjected  itself  to  the  government  of  Octavius,  and 
he  knew  how  to  slyly  maintain  it.  He  pretended  to  his  two  most 
intimate  friends,  Agrippa  and  Magcenas,  to  have  resolved  to  resign 
the  government.  Agrippa,  a  sincere,  upright  warrior,  praised  him 
for  that,  and  advised  him  to  do  so;  but  Maecenas  held  another 
opinion.  In  the  senate  Octavius  uttered  the  same  declaration; 
Maecenas  urged  him  to  stay  ten  years  longer  at  the  helm  of  govern- 
ment. This  political  legerdemain  Octavius  repeated  several  times. 
He  did  not  touch  the  forms  of  republic,  but  kept  the  most  impor- 
tant offices,  especially  the  supreme  command  of  all  armies,  and  sur- 
rounded himself  with  a  strong  life-guard.  He  was  to  be  called 
prince  and  augustus  (the  divine).  The  mainstays  of  his  dominion 
were  Maecenas  and  Agrippa.  He  ruled  at  least  mildly.  During  his 
government,  Tyrol,  Styria  and  parts  of  Bavaria,  Austria  and  Hun- 
garia  were  conquered.  In  Germany  his  legions  were  defeated 
(see  §  42).  Though  ruler  of  the  Roman  world,  he  was  not  free 
and  happy  at  home.  His  third  wife,  Livia,  governed  him  at  pleas- 
ure. By  poison  she  dispatched  the  next  heirs  of  the  throne,  and 
compelled  him  to  accept  Tiberius,  her  favorite  son,  as  his  successor. 
Finally,    he   died  (14  A.  D.),  probably  himself  a   sacrifice  of  her 

§  40.  Who  were  the  two  most  intimate  friends  of  Augustus  ?  What  did 
they  advise  him  concerning  the  government  ?  Whose  advice  did  he  follow  ?  By 
what  means  did  he  maintain  the  supreme  power  ?  Was  his  private  life  happy  ? 
Who  governed  him  at  home  ? 


91 

secret  malignity.  Before  he  died  he  is  reported  to  have  said  to  his 
friends  :  "  Clap  hands,  for  I  have  played  well  my  part."  After  his 
death,  temples  and  festivals  were  dedicated  to  him.  In  a  similar 
manner  most,  even  the  worst  emperors,  were  idolized. 

Sad  was  the  fate  of  the  Roman  empire  under  the  emperors  of 
the  family  of  Augustus.  They  vied  with  each  other  in  cruelty, 
luxury  and  follies.  It  will  suffice  to  enumerate  their  names,  which 
were:  Tiberius,.  Cahgula,  Claudius  and  Nero.  The  latter  sur- 
passed all  his  predecessors  in  cruelty  and  foolishness.  By  his  order 
even  his  brother,  his  mother  and  wife,  and  his  teacher,  Seneca,  were 
killed.  He  set  fire  to  Rome  himself,  laid  the  blame  of  the  action 
upon  the  Galileeans,  a  Jewish  or  Christian  sect,  and  caused  them  to 
be  put  to  a  cr^el  death.  He  went  so  far  in  his  foolishness  that  he 
publicly  passed  through  Italy  and  Greece  as  an  actor  and  singer. 
At  last  the  senate  passed  the  sentence  of  death  upon  the  monster. 
The  coward,  not  having  the  courage  to  take  his  own  life,  caused  a 
poniard  to  be  thrust  into  his  throat  as  he  was  to  be  seized.    (^6S  B.  C.) 

^  41.     Rome  Ruled  by  Good  Emperors.     Downfall  of  the 

Empire. 

After  a  cruel  civil  war,  in  which  three  emperors  were  killed, 
good  rulers  reigned  for  one  hundred  years.  The  first  was  Vespa- 
sian. He  was  economical  in  the  administration  of  the  finances, 
and  kept  the  troops  in  obedience.  He  instituted  pubHc  schools, 
was  the  first  who  paid  teachers,  and  rewarded  artists  and  scholars. 
During  his  reign  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  his  son  Titus  (70  A. 
D.),  who,  by  the  Romans  called  "  the  deHght  of  the  human  race," 
passed  his  short  reign  (79-81  A.  D.)  in  conferring  benefits. 
Nobody  left  him  without  receivmg  comfort.  One  day,  as  he  did  not 
dispense  any  benefit,  he  exclaimed,  sorrowfully:  "Friends,  I  have  lost 
a  day."  During  his  reign  three  calamities  disturbed  its  prosperity 
— a  conflagration  consumed  a  large  portion  of  Rome ;  a  pestilence 
desolated  Italy,  and  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  covered  (23d 
of  August,  79)  the  cities  of  Herculaneum,  Pompeii  and  Stabise  with 
ashes,  entirely  destroying  them.     In  the  last  century  the  two  former 

What  is  he  reported  to  have  said  to  his  friends  when  he  died  ?  Whom  had 
he  to  accept  as  his  successor  ?  What  was  the  character  of  the  emperors  of  his 
family  ?  What  crimes  did  Nero  commit  ?  What  foolish  acts  ?  How  did  he 
perish  ?  ^41.  Give  an  account  of  Vespasian.  What  city  was  destroyed  during 
his  reign  ?  What  did  the  Romans  call  Titus  ?  Why  ?  What  calamities  befell 
Rome  during  his   reign  ? 


92 

cities  were  again  discovered  and  partly  excavated,  disclosing  the 
city  walls,  streets,  temples,  theaters,  the  forum,  baths,  monuments, 
private  buildings,  domestic  utensils,  etc.  The  pictures  covering  the 
walls  are  still  in  a  well-preserved  condition.  Several  skeletons  were 
also  found.  The  skeleton  of  a  woman  held  a  child  upon  her  arm ; 
at  her  side  the  bones  of  two  children  were  lying,  .who  held  each 
other  in  tight  embrace.  Domitian,  a  brother  of  Titus,  was  a  tyrant 
and  was  killed.  Trajan,  said  to  be  the  best  of  the  Roman  sover- 
eigns, took  care  of  the  orphans,  and  augmented  the  number  of  the 
public  schools  in  Italy.  The  arts  and  sciences  flourished  again. 
He  constructed  the  gigantic  high-road  which  runs  from  the  Black 
Sea  as  far  as  Gallia.  He  was  also  fond  of  waging  war.  He  con- 
quered Transylvania,  Assyria,  etc.  Adrian  preferred  peace  to  con- 
quests, lessened  the  taxes  of  the  people,  and  restrained  the  soldiers. 
He  traveled  through  the  greatest  part  of  the  provinces  of  the 
realm,  mostly  on  foot,  and  arranged  good  institutions  in  many 
places.  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  he  became  cruel.  Anto- 
ninus, sumamed  Pius,  did  not  rule  like  a  monarch,  but  as  the  first 
citizen  of  the  State.  His  principle  was,  to  protect  rather  the  life  of 
one  citizen  than  to  sacrifice  it  for  a  thousand  enemies.  Marcus 
Aurelius,  for  his  philosophical  writings  surnamed  the  Sage,  con- 
cludes the  series  of  the  good  emperors  (178  A.  D.)  His  son,  Corn- 
modus,  was  a  rude,  blood-thirsty  monster. 

In  general,  from  this  time  forward,  the  Roman  State  seldom  had 
a  good  emperor,  and  if  one  took  possession  of  the  throne  he  was 
soon  killed  by  the  licentious  soldiers.  The  civil  wars  increased; 
the  morals  grew  worse  and  worse ;  all  bonds  of  public  order  were 
dissolved.  The  change  of  the  regents  became  more  frequent.  Sev- 
eral times  three  or  more  emperors  were  ruling  at  the  same  time.  In 
a  period  of  fifty  years  (235-285  A.  D.)  altogether  fifty  ruled.  Under 
such  circumstances,  the  boundaries  of  the  vast  empire  could  not  be 
protected  against  the  invasions  of  its  enemies,  especially  of  the 
German  nations.     It  visibly  hastened  towards  its  dissolution. 

Among  the  last  emperors  of  this  period  Constantine  I.,  by  flat- 
terers called  the  Great,  is  remarkable  (306-337  A.  D.)  Induced  by 
policy,    he   was  converted   to   the    Christian    religion,   and   aided 

What  relics  were  found  in  the  excavated  cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  ? 
Give  an  account  of  Trajan,  Adrian  and  Antoninus  Pius  ?  What  principle  con- 
fessed the  latter  ?  Why  was  Marcus  Aurelius  surnamed  the  Sage  ?  What  was, 
after  his  death,  the  political  condition  of  the  Roman  empire  ?  How  many 
empprors  reigned  in  the  space  of  50  years  from  235-285  A.  D.  ? 


93 

its  propagation.  He  also  reorganized  the  administration  of  the 
State,  and  established  Byzantium  (afterwards  called  Constantinople) 
as  the  capital  of  the  empire.  As  to  the  rest,  he  also  was  a  cruel 
despot,  who  drowned  his  wife,  put  his  son  to  death,  and  murdered 
the  husbands  of  his  two  sisters,  his  father-in-law,  and  his  nephew,  a 
boy  of  twelve  years  of  age.  Under  the  emperors  Valentinian  and 
Valens,  who  ruled  together,  enemies  assaulted  almost  all  the  bound- 
aries of  the  reafm.  The  Huns  arrived  in  Europe  (375  A.  D.),  and 
caused  the  commencement  of  the  great  migration  of  the  Teutonic 

nations. 

g  42.    Germany.     Arminius. 

In  the  time  of  the  Romans,  a  great  part  of  Germany  still  con- 
sisted of  forests,  marshes  and  sterile  land.  The  climate  was  rough. 
Only  barley  and  oats  were  cultivated.  The  wealth  of  the  inhabitants 
consisted  in  cattle  and  horses.  The  culture  of  the  soil  was  first  im- 
proved by  the  Romans.  The  origin  and  the  first  habitations  of  the 
Germans  are  uncertain.  The  Romans  called  them  Germani.  They 
had  blue  eyes,  light  hair,  and  were  of  gigantic  size.  They  were 
divided  into  many  tribes,  among  which  the  Suevi,  Goths,  Franks, 
Cheruski,  Saxons  and  Marcomans  were  the  most  powerful.  The 
Angles,  Vandals,  Burgundians,  Lombards  and  Alemanni  belonged 
also  to  the  German  tribes. 

The  imperious  Romans  tried  to  conquer  Germany,  and  for  this 
purpose  Julius  Caesar  crossed  the  Rhine.  He  could  not,  however, 
hold  his  ground  beyond  the  river.  During  the  reign  of  Augustus 
they  again  advanced  as  far  as  the  Weser,  pitched  strengthened 
camps  there,  and  built  forts.  Governor  Quintilius  Varus,  a  covet- 
ous man,  demanded  from  the  freemen  taxes  which,  in  their  country, 
only  slaves  used  to  pay,  punished  them  with  axe  and  rods,  and  en- 
deavored to  introduce  Roman  laws  and  language.  Outraged  by 
this  despotic  treatment  they  resolved  to  throw  off  the  disgraceful 
yoke.  Arminius  (Herman),  the  young  chief  of  the  Cheruski,  who 
were  living  at  the  middle  Weser,  came  to  the  front  as  their  leader. 
He  had  commanded  German  federal  troops  in  Rome,  and  thereby 
acquired  military  science.     Though  rewarded   there    with  citizen- 

What  emperor  was  converted  to  the  Christian  religion  ?  What  crimes  stained 
his  character?  What  nation  arrived  in  Europe  under  Valens  and  Valentinian? 
What  migration  began  then  ?  1 42.  How  was  the  climate  in  ancient  Germany  ? 
What  were  the  products  of  the  soil  ?  What  was  the  general  appearance  of  the 
inhabitants  ?  How  were  they  governed  by  Quintilius  Varus  ?  What  did  they  re- 
solve to  do  ?     Who  was  the  leader  of  their  confederation  ? 


94 

ship  and  knighthood,  he  still  remained  true  to  his  country.  He 
secretly  enlisted  friends  for  his  project. 

Some  chieftains,  on  purpose,  began  hostilities  at  a  distance. 
Varus  set  out  with  40,000  men,  and  allowed  himself  to  be  allured 
into  the  Hercynian  forest,  where  Anninius  and  the  other  chieftains 
awaited  him  with  their  warriors.  There  were  nowhere  beaten 
roads;  everywhere  only  woods  and  wilderness.  Violent  showers 
of  rain  made  the  way  slippery.  The  Germans  attaclced  with  impet- 
uousity  ;  but  Varus  was  still  so  infatuated  that  he  even  forbade  his 
legions  to  defend  themselves.  With  pains  he  led  them  to  an  open 
place  where  he  burned  the  wagons  and  unnecessary  baggage. 
Next  day  he  had  to  continue  the  march.  The  Germans  attacked 
him  more  eagerly.  The  Romans,  too,  were  now  fighting,  but  with- 
out success.  When  night  came  on,  they  would  entrench  them- 
selves, but  the  enemies  and  the  incessantly  stormy  weather  pre- 
vented them  doing  so.  The  third  day  they  are  assailed  most  forci- 
bly. The  slaughter  becomes  general;  now  even  the  bravest  lose 
their  courage.  Some,  like  Varus,  run  on  their  own  swords ;  but 
most  are  killed ;  few  only  escape  by  flight.  Some  of  the  captives 
were  hanged  on  trees,  others  sacrificed  to  the  gods ;  the  remainder 
had  to  do  the  most  menial  work  of  slavery.  The  captured  lawyers 
suffered  the  worst  doom.  In  this  manner  one  of  the  best  Roman 
armies  was  annihilated,  and  German  liberty  saved.  When  the  news 
of  the  defeat  of  Varus  reached  Rome,  terror  became  general.  The 
people  were  afraid  of  another  German  invasion  of  Italy.  Augustus, 
at  the  first  onset  of  grief,  tore  his  robe,  locked  himself  up,  and  in 
despair,  dashed  himself  against  the  wall,  exclaiming  :  "Varus,  re- 
store me  my  legions!"  All  the  German  mercenaries  were  removed 
from  Italy,  and  new  troops  sent  to  the  Rhine,  but  they  did  not  find 
the  enemies.  The  Germans  were  contented  to  have  vindicated  their 
independence. 

Augustus  endeavored  to  subject  them  in  the  following  years, 
but  in  vain.  But  Arminius  was,  in  later  time,  vanquished,  his  wife 
Thusnelda  taken  prisoner,  and  led  in  triumph  through  Rome.  In 
the  war  which  the  Germans  after  that  waged  among  themselves,  he 
himself  lost  his  life  by  treachery  (21  A.  D.) 

How  did  they  allure  Varus  into  the  Hercynian  forest  ?  Give  an  account  of 
the  battle.  What  was  its  result  ?  How  did  the  victors  deal  with  the  captives  ? 
How  did  Augustus  brook  the  news  of  the  defeat  ?  What  effect  did  it  cause  in 
Rome  ?     What  events  occurred  later  in  the  life  of  Arminius  and  his  wife  ? 


95 
SECOND  CHAPTER-HISTORY  OF  OIVILIZATIOU". 


§  43.     Roman  Constitution.     Morals  and  Customs  of  the 
Ancient   Germans. 

The  first  emperors  still  preserved  the  republican  forms ;  there 
were  yet  consuls,  tribunes,  etc.,  elected,  but  they  were  only  so  in 
name.  In  later  times,  this  practice  also  was  stopped.  The  army 
proclaimed  the  emperors,  not  caring  longer  to  obtain  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  senate,  and  the  captain  of  the  body-guard  (praefectus 
praetorio)  was,  next  to  the  emperor,  the  highest  dignitary  of  the 
empire.  Diocletian  (285-305  A.  D.)  established  the  pomp  of  the 
Oriental  courts,  and  the  emperors  •  henceforth  assumed  the  title, 
dominus  (master).  The  last  vestige  of  liberty  vanished.  The  taxes 
became  more  and  more  oppressive  and  the  armies  more  numerous. 
Finally,  as  the  citizens  refused  to  fight  longer  in  the  wars  of  the  des- 
potic sovereigns,  many  barbarians  were  enrolled  in  the  armies. 
Constantine  I.  divided  the  whole  realm  into  four  prefectures,  every 
prefecture  into  several  dioceses,  and  these  into  provinces. 

The  ancient  Germans  lived  entirely  free.  Their  public  affairs 
were  deliberated  in  general  meetings.  The  lands,  too,  belonged  to 
the  commons,  and  were  annually  divided  among  the  individuals, 
according  to  their  needs.  It  was  considered  a  disgrace  to  survive 
the  chief  in  battle.  He  who  lost  his  shield  became  infamous.  The 
bards,  a  kind  of  poets,  encouraged  their  combatants  by  their  songs; 
the  women,  by  their  speeches.  Next  to  war,  the  men  liked  hunting 
best;  house  and  field  must  be  taken  care  of  by  the  women  and  ser- 
vants. Hospitality,  faithfulness  to  a  given  promise,  love  of  country 
and  of  liberty  were  the  praiseworthy  qualities  of  the  ancient  Ger- 
mans; on  the  other  hand,  a  propensity  for  idleness  and  robbery  and 
a  passion  for  gambling  and  drinking  were  their  national  faults. 
They  did  not  think  it  wrong  to  go  abroad,  beyond  their  district,  for 
booty.  If  everything  they  had  was  lost  by  gambfing,  liberty  even 
was  wagered,  and  the  loser  willingly  became  the  slave  of  the  other. 
The  carousals  often  lasted  for  whole  days  and  nights,  and  yet  the 
most   important  deliberations  also  were  conducted  at   them.     The 

I  43.  What  did  the  Roman  emperors  still  preserve  of  the  old  constitution  ? 
What  title  did  they  at  last  assume  ?  What  of  taxes  and  armies  ?  Why  did  they 
enroll  barbarians  in  the  armies  ?  Give  a  description  of  the  customs  and  manners 
of  the  ancient  Germans.  Where  did  they  deliberate  general  affairs  ?  How  were 
the  lands  divided?  Who  encouraged  them  in  battles  ?  Mention  their  good  and 
bad  qualities. 


96 

favorite  beverage  of  the  Germans  was  beer,  which  they  drank  out  of 
the  horns  taken  from  killed  game. 

g  44,     Religion  of  the  Ancient  Germans.     Christian 
Religion. 

According  to  the  report,  the  ancient  Germans  worshiped  Wodin 
(Odin),  also  called  Alfader  (father  of  all),  as  the  supreme  Being;  his 
son,  Thor,  as  the  god  of  thunder;  his  spouse,  Freyja,  as  the  goddess 
of  love  and  wedlock ;  Hertha,  the  goddess  of  the  earth ;  the  Wal- 
kyres,  goddesses  of  the  battles,  etc.  They  believed  in  a  heaven 
(Walhalla),  where  they  would  drink  beer  and  mead  out  of  the  skulls 
of  their  killed  enemies;  and  .in  a  hell  (Hela).  They  had  sacred 
groves,  sacrifices,  oracles,  priests  and  priestesses.  In  those  groves 
they  kept  white  horses,  according  to  the  neighing  of  which  they 
interpreted  the  future.  They  also  offered  human  sacrifices.  They 
highly  valued  forebodings  ;  e.  g.,  whether  at  the  time  of  a  meeting 
the  moon  .was  full  or  new.  Before  engaging  in  important  enter- 
prises they  asked  the  advice  of  the  priests.  To  the  women,  also, 
they  gave  credit  for  being  able  to  cast  a  prophetic  look  into  the 
future. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  religions  decHned  in  this  period ;  they 
had  lost  their  authority ;  the  more  culture  and  enlightenment  in- 
creased, the  greater  was  the  contempt  into  which  they  sank.  The 
Jews,  too,  did  not  adhere  so  closely  to  the  Mosaic  creed.  Secta- 
rianism had  gained  ground  among  them,  and  empty  ceremonies  had 
taken  the  place  of  true  religion.  At  such  a  time,  during  the  gov- 
ernment of  Augustus,  Jesus  of  Nazareth  made  his  appearance  in 
Palestine,  constructing  a  new  and  better  religion  on  the  foundation 
of  the  old  Judasim.  His  conduct  was  strictly  moral  and  pure,  in 
general,  and  even  his  enemies  could  not  find  any  fault  with  him. 
As  he  attacked  the  ruling  abuses  of  the  religious  government,  and 
severely  censured  the  vices  of  the  priests  and  Pharisees,  who  formed 
a  powerful  sect,  he  became  the  object  of  their  hatred,  and  perished 
by  the  violent  death  of  crucifixion.  After  his  death  his  doctrines 
were  collected  and  written  down ;  he  himself  has  left  nothing  in 
writing.     His  religion    had  spread,  after  some  centuries,  over   the 

^  44.  Who  was  Wodin,  Thor,  Freyja,  Hertha  ?  What  animals  did  the  Ger- 
mans keep  in  their  sacred  groves  ?  Wherefore  ?  Whose  advice  did  they  ask  in 
important  enterprises  ?  Why  did  Christianity  gain  the  ascendency  over  the 
Mosaic,  Greek  and  Roman  religions  ?  Give  some  particulars  of  the  life  of 
Jesus.     When  were  his  doctrines  written  down? 


97 

whole  Roman  world,  and  since  Constantine  I.  had  declared  it  the 
religion  of  the  State,  it  became  predominant  in  his  realm.  Its  con- 
fessors were  called  Christians,  because  its  author,  Jesus,  was  called 
Christ  (the  anointed,  the  king). 

The  causes  of  the  rapid  propagation  of  Christianity  were  both 
internal  and  external;  and  among  those  causes  the  excellence  of 
the  doctrine  deserves  to  be  mentioned,  viz.,  Jesus  represented  God 
as  the  father  of  all  men,  recommended  his  spiritual  veneration, 
insisted  upon  a  pure,  moral  life  (as  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom 
of  God),  and  commanded  love  and  charity  towards  everyone,  even 
our  enemies.  He  taught  that  all  men  are  equal  in  the  presence  of 
God,  and  members  of  one  family.  Therefore  his  religion  gained  a 
great  many  proselytes  among  the  poor,  humble  and  the  slaves, 
who  felt  themselves  elevated  by  such  principles.  Besides,  these 
people  were  aided  by  collections  from  the  Christians,  destined  for 
the  comfort  of  the  distressed.  Other  external  causes  were  :  the  dis- 
persion of  the  Jews,  whose  religion  is  the  foundation  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  by  which  their  moral 
force  was  nerved.  The  blood  of  the  martyrs  became  the  seed  of 
new  confessors.  Sometimes,  however,  the  Christians  themselves 
were  to  be  blamed  if  they  incurred  persecutions,  either  by  disturb- 
ing the  established  religious  rites,  or  by  being  disobedient  to  the 
laws  of  the  country,  or  by  pressing  to  the  tribunals  of  their  enemies^ 
in  order  to  be  victims  of  their  creed.  Most  severely  were  they  per- 
secuted for  some  time  by  the  Emperor  Galerius,  imperial  colleague 
of  Diocletian;  still  later,  he  was  reconciled  with  them. 

The  Christians  themselves  soon  began  to  quarrel  about  obscure 
dogmas  of  their  religion.  They  did  so  especially  in  their  ecclesiastic 
councils  (synods).  From  words  they  went,  sometimes,  to  bloody 
affrays,  and  even  to  wars.  Since  Constantine  had  conceded  to  the 
Christian  Church  the  same  rights  as  pertained  to  the  old  State  relig- 
ion, the  persecuted  began  persecuting;  /,  <?.,  Arius,  a  priest  of 
Alexandria,  taught  that  Jesus  had  not  existed  from  eternity,  and  was 
less  than  God.     For  this  he  was  expelled  in  the  council  of  Nice 


What  emperor  declared  Christianity  the  religion  of  the  State?  Mention 
some  internal  and  external  causes  of  its  rapid  propagation.  Why  did  it  gain 
many  proselytes  among  the  poor  and  slaves  ?  For  whom  were  the  collections  of 
the  Christians  destined  ?  What  effect  had  the  death  of  the  martyrs  ?  In  what 
way  were  the  Christians  themselves  at  fault  for  their  persecution  ?  About  what 
did  the  Christians  begin  to  quarrel  ?     Give  an  example. 

(7) 


98 

from  communion  with  the  church,  and  exiled,  and  his  writings  were 
burned.     His  followers  were  also  punished. 

The  clergymen  obtained  great  privileges  and  riches,  and  soon 
formed  a  special  class  (the  priesthood),  separating  from  the  people 
(the  laity).  They  discontinued  civil  busmess,  took  salaries  and 
appointments  for  life ;  only  the  right  of  confirmation  was  left  to  the 
communities.  Many  degrees  of  rank  were  established.  The  high- 
est priests  were  styled  patriarchs.  These  took  up  their  residences 
in  the  most  important  cities  of  the  empire,  and  usurped  the  prerog- 
ative of  superintending  the  bishops. 

§  45.    The  Arts  and  Sciences. 

The  arts  and  sciences  truly  flourished  thus  far  during  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  for  he  himself  and  Maecenas  were  their 
protectors  and  friends;  but,  poesy  excepted,  their  most  beautiful 
time  was  already  past.  The  loss  of  political  Hberty  effected  their 
decay,  and  the  rage  of  destruction,  in  which  Christians  and  barbar- 
ians vied  with  each  other,  hastened  their  ruin.  In  this  way,  under 
Constantine,  crowds  of  priests  and  monks  passed  through  Greece, 
burned  the  temples,  ruined  their  works  of  art,  and  destroyed  the 
most  ingenious  writings. 

Among  the  Roman  poets  Virgil,  Horace  and  Ovid  occupy  the 
first  place.  The  first,  who  was  most  accomplished  in  language  and 
form,  wrote  idyls,  depicted  agriculture  in  a  didactic  poem,  and 
related,  in  the  ^neid,  the  wanderings  of  ^neas  and  his  settling  in. 
Latium.  The  satires  of  Horace  abound  in  delicate  irony;  his  poet- 
ical epistles  contain  a  treasure  of  practical  wisdom.  Ovid,  the  most 
productive  of  the  Roman  poets,  wrote  elegies  from  Bulgaria  (Pontus), 
his  place  of  exile,  love-letters,  metamorphoses  (a  collection  of 
myths),  etc.  Among  the  Grecian  historians  the  most  celebrated 
were  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  and  Plutarch,  author  of  renowned 
biographies ;  among  the  Romans,  besides  Sallustius  and  Cornelius 
Nepos,  especially  Titus  Livy  and  Tacitus.  The  former  wrote  the- 
Roman  history  in  142  books,  of  which  the  greater  part  is  lost;  the 
latter,  the  lives  of  the  Augustan  emperors.  The  astronomer,  Ptole- 
mseus,  supposed  the  earth  to  be  the  center  of  the  universe.  His- 
opinion  prevailed  till  the  time  of  Copernicus.  The  elder  Plinius  wrote 

What  of  the  clergymen  ?  \  45.  Under  what  emperor  did  sciences  and  arts- 
flourish  ?  Who  destroyed  their  productions  ?  Name  some  Roman  poets  ;  Gre- 
cian and  Roman  historians  ;  a  renowned  astronomer  ;  an  encyclopedist ;  some 
Roman  philosophers. 


99 

a  kind  of  encyclopaedia,  which  comprised  most  of  sciences.  He 
lost  his  life  by  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which  he  would  observe  close 
by.  Among  the  philosophers,  the  best  followed  the  doctrine  of  the 
Stoics ;  e.g.,  Seneca,  Emperor  Mark  Aurel  and  Epictetus.  The  latter, 
in  the  bonds  of  slavery  also  behaved  like  a  philosopher,  and  was 
Aurel's  friend.     Lucianus  wrote  sharp  satires. 

EXERCISES. 

Biography  of  Augustus,  according  to  these  main  points  :  i,  Augustus,  the 
youth;  2,  the  triumvir;  3,  the  rival  of  Antonius;  4,  the  emperor;  5,  as  private 
person.  Give  the  names  of  the  best  and  of  the  worst  Roman  emperors.  Which 
conquests  were  added,  in  this  period,  to  the  bulk  of  the  Roman  lands  ?  With 
which  emperor  began  the  rapid  decay  of  the  Roman  empire  ?  How  long  were 
the  Augustan  emperors  reigning  ?  How  many  years  elapsed  between  Nero's 
death  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ?  How  many  centuries  comprises  the 
third  period  ?  From  whom  does  Constantinople  derive  its  name  ?  What  causes 
effected  the  rapid  propagation  of  Christianity  ?  What  emperors  encouraged  the 
improvement  of  instruction  and  education?  What  emperor  patronized  the 
sciences  and  arts  ? 


^5>  Nw^  <^^ 


SECOND  SECTION. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


FOURTH   PERIOD. 

FrorT[the  Migratioq  of  Nations  to  the  Decay  of  the  Dominioq 
of  the  Franks:    I.  Migratioq  of  Nations,    2.    Mo- 
hammedaq   Empire.    3.   Garlovingian  Mon- 
archy.    Fron^  375  to  900  A.   D. 


FIEST    OHAPTEE-PaLITIOAL    HISTORY. 


1.  MIGRATION  OF  NATIONS-375  TO  668  A.  D. 


1 46.     Summary  of  the  Migration.     Huns.     Attila. 

The  Huns,  a  nomadic  nation  of  the  deserts  of  Central  Asia, 
spread  terror  in  Mongolia  (Tartary)  during  several  centuries.  They 
were  ugly  and  deformed,  resembling  half-molded  blocks  ;  of  yellow 
complexion,  beardless,  with  small,  hollow  eyes.  They  used  to  eat 
raw  meat,  after  having  it  softened  on  horse-back,  under  the  saddle. 
They  performed  every  work  on  their  horses,  upon  which  they  sped 
along  Hke  arrows.  They  possessed  wonderful  skill  in  shooting  arrows. 
They  were  finally  subdued  by  the  Chinese  (30  A.  D.)  A  great  por- 
tion of  them  emigrated,  for  unknown  reasons,  to  the  west,  crossed 
the  Volga,  and  attacked  the  nations  which  had  settled  beyond  this 
river.     And  now  the  great  migration  of  nations  began  (375  A.  D.) 

§  46.  Describe  the  Huns;  their  shape  and  customs.  What  nation  gave  the 
shock  for  the  great  migration  of  nations  ?  What  river  did  the  Huns  cross  in 
Russia  ? 

101 


102 


ana    -i "  -»    a"  Jl   ^  -•> 


Beyond  the  Volga,  the  Alani,  who  belonged  to  a  similar  race,  were 
settled,  and  behind  them,  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  north,  the  Ostra- 
goths  and  Visigoths.  The  Huns  attacked  the  Alani,  dispersed 
them,  and  settled  between  the  Don  and  Volga.  But  soon  desiring 
new  conquests,  they  crossed  the  Don,  killed  a  part  of  the  Alani, 
forcing  the  rest  to  unite  with  them,  and  chased  the  Ostrogoths  over 
the  Dnieper.  The  Visigoths  endeavored  to  resist,  but  had  also  to 
give  in  ;  part  of  them  retired  into  the  mountains,  others  passed  the 
Danube  and  obtained  homes  in  Thracia.  In  later  time  they  went 
to  Italy. 

The  shock  of  the  Huns  also  exerted  its  influence  upon  the  Ger- 
man nations  living  on  the  Baltic  Sea.  The  Suevi,  Vandals,  etc.,  com- 
manded by  Radagaisus,  poured  forth  over  the  Danube  and  the 
Alps,  and  overrun  Italy  (405  A.  D.)  Beaten  by  the  Romans  here, 
they  turned  to  Gallia,  laid  this  country  waste,  and  continued  their 
passage  over  the  Pyrenees  to  Spain,  which  they  divided  by  lot.  The 
Vandals,  after  some  time,  set  sail  for  Africa,  there  founding  a  new 
realm. 

The  Burgundians,  forced  along  by  these  nations,  settled  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone,  and  in  course  of  time  spread  as  far  as 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  Franks  extended  their  dominion  in 
Gallia  more  and  more. 

For  a  short  time  Attila,  the  terrible  ruler  of  the  Huns,  and  as  he 
called  himself,  "  the  scourge  of  God,"  overpowered  the  lately 
founded  realms.  In  Hungaria  was  the  center  of  his  empire,  which 
extended  from  the  Volga  as  far  as  the  interior  of  Germany,  and  his 
residence.  This  consisted  of  a  number  of  wooden  houses,  above 
which  his  palace,  also  built  of  wood,  towered.  The  generals  and 
officers  of  his  court  had  sumptuous  carpets,  baths,  gorgeous  apart- 
ments, silver-plate,  Greek  cookery,  etc.  He  himself  held  to  the  old 
customs  of  his  nation,  eating  and  drinking  from  wooden  cups,  and 
satisfied  with  the  plainest  food. 

The  eastern  portion  of  the  Roman  empire  was  already  compelled 
to  pay  him  tribute ;  but  he  wanted  also  to  subdue  the  western  part, 
and  therefore  started  out  with  700,000  warriors.  Ten  thousand  Bur- 
gundians, who  marched  against  him,  perished  heroically  in  the  uneven 

What  nations  did  they  first  attack  ?  What  of  Radagaisus,  leader  of  the  Suevi 
and  Vandals?  Where  did  they  at  last  settle?  Where  did  the  Burgundians 
settle  ?  Franks  ?  Who  shook  the  new  realms  for  a  time  ?  Where  was  Attila's 
residence  ?  How  did  he  live  ?  How  his  generals  ?  Delineate  his  contest 
with  the  western  countries  of  the  Roman  empire.    Who  was  fighting  against  him  ? 


I 


103 

•combat.  The  Franks,  too,  tried  in  vain  to  resist  him.  Now  the 
Romans,  Visigoths  and  Alani  combined  their  forces  against  him. 
Aetius,  the  last  hero  of  the  waning  empire,  led  the  Romans ;  Theo- 
doric  the  Visigoths,  and  Meroveus  the  Franks.  At  Chalons,  on  the 
Marne,  the  Occident  was  fighting  Attila  (45  i  A.  D.)  At  that  remote 
time  Germans  were  already  fighting  against  Germans ;  they  decided 
also  the  battle,  the  greatest  ever  fought  in  the  western  countries. 
Theodoric  was  killed,  but  his  son,  Thorismundus,  gained  the  nearly 
lost  victory;  100,000,  according  to  other  reports,  even  300,000 
warriors  lay  slain  on  the  battle-field. 

The  next  year  the  Huns,  pouring  like  a  torrent  upon  Italy,  de- 
stroyed the  city  of  Aquileia  after  a  siege  of  three  months.  The 
inhabitants  took  refuge  in  the  neighboring  islands,  thereby  laying 
the  foundation  of  Venice.  Attila  then  marched  to  Rome.  Pope 
Leo  I.  came  to  meet  him  at  the  head  of  the  clergy,  amid  solemn 
songs.  His  representations,  supported  by  the  offer  of  a  high  ran- 
som, were  effective,  and  the  barbarian  spared  the  city,  granting 
peace.  Attila  departed  from  Italy,  and  soon  after  from  the  world. 
The  Huns  returned  to  their  country. 

After  Attila's  death  there  was  again  a  thronging  for  homes  in 
Italy.  The  Ostrogoths  subjected  it  (492  A.  D.) ;  the  Lombards 
concluded  the  migrations  (568  A.  D.)  About  the  year  600  A.  D. 
we  find  the  following  nations  in  Europe :  In  Italy,  the  Lombards ; 
in  Spain,  the  Visigoths ;  in  Gallia,  the  Franks ;  in  England,  the  Brit- 
ons, Angles  and  Saxons;  in  Germany,  the  Saxons,  Thuringians, 
etc. ;  to  the  north  of  them,  Normans  and  Fins ;  to  the  east,  the 
Slavonians ;  in  Hungary,  the  Avarians,  who  had  immigrated  from 
Asia ;  and  southeast  from  them  the  Greeks. 

^  47.     Visigoths.     Alarie.     Downfall  of  the  Western  Ro- 
man Empire.     Ostrogoths.    Theodoric. 
Justinian.     Belisarius. 

When  the  Visigoths  were  attacked  by  the  Huns,  most  of  them 
passed  over  the  Danube,  and  were  admitted  into  Thracia  by 
Emperor  Valens,   on  promise  to  do  mifitary  service,  and  to  confess 

Who  was  the  leader  of  the  Romans  ?  Of  the  Visigoths  ?  Of  the  Franks  ? 
How  many  were  killed  in  the  battle  ?  Where  did  Attila  march  to  from  France  ? 
How  was  Venice  founded?  How  was  Attila  reconciled  with  Rome?  Where, 
about  the  year  600  A.  D.,  were  the  Lombards  settled?  Where  the  Visigoths? 
The  Franks  ?  The  Britons  ?  The  Thuringians  ?  The  Normans  ?  The  Slavo- 
nians and  Avarians  ?     The  Greeks  ? 


104 

Christianity.  But  being  treated  deceitfully  and  cruelly,  they  took 
up  arms,  vanquished  the  emperor,  advanced  as  far  as  Constantino- 
ple, and  desolated  the  country.  Theodosius  I.  finished  the  war, 
and  made  a  new  contract  of  service  with  them.  He  divided  the 
empire  among  his  sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius  (395  A.  D.)  The 
former  obtained  the  Orient,  the  latter  the  western  provinces.  After 
his  death,  Alaric  conducted  the  Visigoths  to  Italy,  and  extorted 
tribute  from  both  the  emperors.  As  Honorius  refused  longer  to  pay 
it,  Alaric  appointed  another  emperor,  and  as  neither  the  latter  an- 
swered his  expectations,  he  took  Rome  by  storm  (410  A.  D.)  He, 
however,  behaved  humanely,  sparing  the  lives  of  the  inhabitants. 
He  even  conducted  the  defenseless  himself  into  a  church  for  safety. 
Soon  after  he  died.  His  warriors  interred  him,  with  his  attire  and 
armor,  in  the  midst  of  the  rivulet  Busento.  The  Visigoths  then 
went  to  Gallia,  which  they  conquered  as  far  as  the  Loire.  From 
there  they  moved  to  Spain,  and  also  conquered  this  country. 

After  the  departure  of  the  Visigoths,  other  German  troops  dis- 
posed of  Italy  at  will,  until  finally  one  of  their  commanders^ 
Odoacer,  deposed  the  last  emperor,  Romulus  Augustulus,  and  was 
proclaimed  king.  From  him  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
again  seized  the  dominion  and  made  an  offer  to  the  Grecian  em- 
peror to  go  with  his  entire  people  to  Italy,  and  to  expel  Odoacer. 
The  emperor,  having  accepted  the  offer,  Theodoric  led  the  Goths 
to  Italy.  Odoacer  defended  himself  three  years  in  Ravenna, 
Finally  he  surrendered  the  city  upon  condition  that  he  should  gov- 
ern in  common  with  Theodoric,  but  was  murdered  during  the  cele- 
bration of  peace,  and  the  latter  proclaimed  by  his  people  king  of 
Italy  (992  A.  D.)  He  enlarged  his  dominion  as  far  as  Dalmatia, 
and  administered  also  the  government  of  Spain  in  the  name  of  his 
grandson.  Still  in  the  prime  of  life,  he  nevertheless  put  aside  the 
sword,  and  promoted  agriculture,  commerce  and  the  arts. 

After  his  death,  the  Emperor  Justinian  ordered  his  eminent  gen- 
eral, Belisarius,  who  had  already  subjected  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  to 
reconquer  also  Italy.  This  general  had  acquired  much  glory  by 
defending  Rome  with  a  small  army  for  one  year  against  the  twenty 
times  larger  forces  of  the  enemies  (537  A.  D.)     Finally,  they  sur- 

^  47.  How  did  Theodosius  I.  divide  the  Roman  empire  ?  Who  led  the  Visi- 
goths to  Italy  ?  What  was  his  success  ?  To  what  countries  did  the  Visigoths 
move  after  Alaric's  death  ?  Who  deposed  the  last  emperor  ?  Who  became  king 
of  Italy  after  Odoacer  ?     What  exploit  is  reported  of  Belisarius  ? 


105 

rendered  to  him  their  capital,  Ravenna.  Justinian,  jealous  of  the 
glory  of  his  general,  deprived  him  of  the  command,  whereupon  the 
Goths  again  fought  successfully.  At  last  Narses  subdued  them  en- 
tirely (553  A.  D.)     He  became  governor  of  Italy. 

Also  requited  by  the  emperor  with  ingratitude,  and  recalled,. 
Narses,  to  avenge  himself,  invited  the  Lombards  to  come  to  Italy. 
Led  by  Alboin,  they  pourfed  into  the  country  and  conquered  Lom- 
bardy,  which  received  its  name  from  them ;  they  also  conquered 
the  larger  part  of  upper  Italy  (568  A.  D.)  Pavia  became  the  capi- 
tal of  the  new  kingdom. 

2,    MOHAMMEDAN    UNIVEESAL  EMPIRE-632-900  A.  D. 


^  48.     Arabia.     Mohammed.     The  Caliphate. 

Mohammed  was  born  (571  A.  D.)  of  poor  parents,  in  Mecca,  a 
town  of  Arabia.  He  was  a  member  of  the  noble  tribe  Koreish, 
and  of  the  family  Hashim,  which  formerly  protected  the  prin- 
cipal temple  (the  Kaaba).  He  lost  his  parents  early.  When  a 
youth,  he  devoted  himself  to  poetry ;  then  entered  the  mercantile 
service  of  a  rich  widow,  whose  hand  he  obtained  by  his  ability  and 
faithfulness.  At  a  later  time  he  retired  into  solitude,  intending  to 
establish  a  new  religion,  which  should  unite  the  three  religious  par- 
ties of  his  country — Jews,  Christians  and  heathens. 

He  first  communicated  his  idea  to  his  friends,  and  soon  gained 
their  approbation.  He  then  appeared  publicly  as  a  prophet,  but 
the  multitude  paid  little  attention  to  him.  The  inhabitants  of 
Mecca,  earning  great  profits  from  the  pilgrimage  of  the  Arabs,  de- 
clared against  him.  But  the  Korei'shites,  the  associates  of  his 
tribe,  most  decidedly  opposed  him,  because  being  the  priests  of 
the  Kaaba,  they  were  fearful  of  losing  their  authority  and  revenues. 
They  conspired  against  his  life.  The  family  Omejjah,  since  olden 
times  fostering  adverse  feelings  towards  his  relatives,  headed  them. 
They*  resolved  that  on  an  appointed  night  one  member  of  every 
family  should  thrust  his  sword  into  Mohammed's  breast.  His  ene- 
mies surrounded  his  house;  but  AH,  his  relation,  rescued  him  from 

How  did  Justinian  requite  him  and  Narses?  What  German  nation  then 
subdued  Italy  ?  |  48.  Where  was  Mohammed  born  ?  To  what  noble  tribe 
and  family  did  he  belong?  To  what  art  did  he  devote  himself  in  his  youth  ? 
What  did  he  become  later?  What  was  his  object  when  he  lived  in  solitude? 
By  whom  was  his  idea  first  approved  ?  What  tribe  opposed  him  ?  Why  ? 
What  did  the  family  Omejjah  resolve  upon  ?     Who  saved  his  life  ? 


106 

their  hands.  He  fled  to  Medina,  where  he  had  already  secured 
several  followers  (i6th  of  July,  622  A.  D.)  From  the  day  of  his 
flight  the  Mohammedan  nations  count  their  years. 

Now  he  resolved  to  propagate  his  doctrine  by  force  of  arms. 
According  to  Arabian  usage,  he  began  to  fight  his  tribe,  the  Korei- 
-shites,  issuing  the  command  to  make  war  upon  all  infidels.  Sup- 
ported by  the  inhabitants  of  Medina,  he  gave  battle  to  the  members 
of  his  tribe  and  to  their  allies,  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca,  in  which 
he  was  victorious,  and  secured  a  rich  booty.  Finally,  they  agreed 
to  conclude  peace  with  him.  He  continued  his  conquests,  and 
after  some  years  he  became  so  redoubtable  that  he  dared  to  summon 
the  Grecian  emperor  and  other  powerful  princes,  to  embrace  his 
religion.  As  then  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca  had  violated  the  terms 
•of  peace,  he  marched  against  them  and  captured  the  town  (630 
A.  D.)  But  he  treated  the  vanquished  mildly.  He  purified  the 
Kaaba  of  idols.  Mecca  acknowledged  him  as  prophet  and  sover- 
-eign.  In  the  following  years  he  subdued  almost  the  whole  of 
Arabia. 

His  manners  of  life  were  very  simple.  He  lived  on  barley-bread 
and  dates.  His  couch  was  a  carpet  on  the  bare  ground.  He  re- 
quired no  marks  of  honor ;  he  did  not  even  permit  his  associates  to 
rise  in  his  presence  when  he  came  to  see  them.  He  would  say : 
"  I  am  a  servant  of  God,  Hke  you ;  I  eat  and  drink  like  you,  and  I 
get  seated  like  every  other  man."  Both  he  and  his  first  successors 
often  preached  at  the  head  of  the  armies.  When  he  felt  that  death 
approached  him,  he  liberated  his  slaves.  He  died,  probably  from 
poison  (632  A.  D.) 

His  first  successors  (caliphs)  were  :  Abu  Bekr,  his  father-in-law ; 
Omar,  conqueror  of  Egypt,  Palestine,  Syria  and  Persia ;  Othman, 
compiler  of  the  Koran,  and  Ali.  They  all  died  violent  deaths. 
After  Ah,  the  Omejjades  were  ruHng  (since  656  A.  D.)  They  con- 
tinued the  conquests  in  Africa.  Taric,  one  of  their  generals,  went 
to  Spain  (711  A.  D.),  founded  Gibraltar  (Gebel-al-Taric — ro'ck  of 
Taric);  and  also  subdued  the  Visigoths.  Their  capital  was  Damas- 
cus.    They  were  dispossessed  of  their  territory  by  the  Abbasides, 

Where  did  he  flee  to  ?  From  what  day  do  the  Mohammedan  nations  count 
their  years  ?  By  what  means  did  he  then  propagate  his  faith  ?  Who  were  his 
allies  in  his  war  against  Mecca  ?  What  country  did  he  finally  conquer  ?  What 
was  his  manner  of  living?  What  kind  action  did  he  perform  before  he  died? 
What  of  his  first  successors  ?  What  general  founded  Gibraltar  and  subdued  the 
Visigoths  ? 


107 

descendants  of  Abbas,  Mohammed's  uncle  (750  A.  D.)  Of  the 
latter,  Harun-al-Rashid,  a  contemporary  of  Charlemagne,  attained 
the  highest  glory.  Their  capital  was  the  magnificent  Bagdad,  close 
to  ancient  Babylon.  Towards  the  end  of  this  period  the  power  of 
the  caHphs  was  decreasing.  In  order  to  be  protected  against  the 
enemies  which  were  threatening  them  abroad  and  at  home,  they 
kept  a  body-guard  of  Turkish  slaves,  which  soon  became  formidable 
to  themselves.  More  and  more  governors  made  themselves  inde- 
pendent and  founded  particular  dynasties;  e.  g.,  Seljook,  com- 
mander of  Turkish  warriors,  and  Ortok,  a  Seljookian  vassal.  Finally, 
the  empire  was  overthrown  by  the  Mongols  (1258  A.  D.) 

3.    OARLOVINGIAN  MONAEOHY-771-900  A-  D- 


^  49.      Franks.      Clovis.      Major-domos.      Charlemagne. 
Partition  of  his  Realm. 

The  Franks  (about  450  A.  D.),  were  ruled  by  Merovseus,  foun- 
der of  the  Merovingian  dynasty.  His  grandson,  Clovis  (Louis), 
extended  his  dominion  over  southern  France,  Burgundy,  Franconia, 
Thuringia,  etc.,  so  that  it  reached  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  and  the 
Pyrenees  as  far  as  the  river  Unstrut,  in  Bavaria  (about  500  A.  D.) 
His  successors  were  mere  mock  kings,  in  whose  names  their  major- 
domos  (stewards  of  their  private  estates),  governed.  One  of  them, 
Charles  Martell  (the  hammer),  at  Tours,  shattered  the  forces  of  the 
Saracens  by  a  complete  victory  (732  A.  D.)  His  son,  Pepin,  favored 
by  a  decree  of  the  pope,  djethroned  Childeric  IH.,  and  caused  him- 
self to  be  elected  king.  Through  gratitude,  he  assisted  the  popes 
against  the  Lombards,  seized  their  possessions  and  presented,  or 
(according  to  other  reports,)  invested  the  former  with  them. 

Pepin's  son,  Charlemagne,  first  governed  jointly  with  his  brother 
Carloman  (768  A.  D.),  but  after  his  death  he  stripped  his  widow 
and  children  of  their  inheritance  and  took  possession  of  the  whole 
empire  (771  A.  D.)  He  immediately  began  war  against  the  Saxons, 
pretending  that  he  must  guard  the  kingdom  and  propagate  Chris- 

What  caliph  attained  the  highest  glory?  What  was  the  capital  of  the  ca- 
liphs ?  I  49.  Who  was  the  founder  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  ?  What  was 
the  extent  of  the  dominion  of  Clovis?  What  were  the  major-domos  of  the 
Merovingian  kings  ?  W^hat  exploit  did  Charles  Martell  perform  ?  By  whom 
was  Childeric  III.  dethroned  ?  Who  succeeded  to  the  throne  after  him  ?  How  did 
he  use  his  sister-in-law  ?    How  the  Saxons  ?    On  what  pretext  did  he  attack  them  ? 


108 

tianity — a  war  which,  including  some  interruptions — lasted  thirty -two 
years.  In  the  first  campaign  he  destroyed  pagan  idols  highly  ven- 
erated by  the  Saxons.  Having  scarcely  vanquished  a  part  of  them, 
he  sent  them  a  large  number  of  missionaries,  who,  incited  by  blind 
fanaticism,  wanted  to  introduce  Christianity  forcibly.  He  built 
castles  in  order  to  check  them  in  their  own  country,  and  compelled 
the  Saxons  to  aid  him  in  their  construction.  Finally,  after  several 
campaigns,  they  swore  allegiance  to  him  (777  A.  D.),  and  consented 
to  give  tribute  and  tithes,  and  to  get  baptized.  But  Witikind,  their 
most  respected  commander,  would  not  acknowledge  the  sovereignty 
of  Charlemagne,  and  again  waged  war.  The  latter  marched  against 
hnn,  and  the  Saxons  submitted  again.  But  as  Charlemagne  desired, 
with  their  assistance,  to  subjugate  the  Slavonians,  they  surprised  the 
Franks  on  the  way  and  cut  down  most  of  them.  Charlemagne 
took  cruel  vengeance  (782  A.  D.)  He  caused  all  who  refused 
baptism  to  l)e  killed.  Thousands  were  driven  to  the  rivers  and 
either  christened  or  drowned.  About  5,000  who  had  come  of  their 
own  accord,  he  ordered  to  be  cut  down.  Blood,  corpses  and  flames 
marked  his  march.  Then  all  Saxons  rose — also  those  tribes  who  thus 
far  had  remained  peaceful — and  fought  three  years  with  the  courage 
of  despair.  Charlemagne  contended  against  them  with  fire  and 
sword.  At  last  he  succeeded  in  reconciling  the  heroic  Witikind,  by 
the  power  of  persuasion,  and  he  consented  to  be  baptized  (785 
A.  D.)  The  Saxons  again  yielded,  and  remained  quiet  several  years. 
In  fact,  they  threw  off  the  yoke  several  times  more,  but  always  in 
vain.  Charlemagne  secured  his  conquests  by  appointing  bishops, 
palsgraves  and  itinerant  judges. 

During  his  wars  with  the  Saxons,  many  others  also  occurred. 
Through  ambition  he  deprived  his  father-in-law,  Desiderius,  of 
Lombardy,  and  his  ally  Thassilo  of  the  dukedom  of  Bavaria,  and 
put  both  into  convents.  Moreover,  he  waged  war  against  the  Nor- 
mans, the  Slavonians  and  the  Avares,  who  often  invaded  Germany^ 
plundering  and  robbing ;  also  against  the  caliph  of  Cordova,  etc. 
By  all  these  wars  he  extended  his  empire  up  to  the  Ebro,  Tiber,, 
Raab  and  Eyder.  When,  in  the  year  800  A.  D.,  he  was  in  Rome^ 
and  celebrated  Christmas  at  church,  the  pope  placed  upon  his  head 

How  long  did  his  war  against  them  last  ?  Who  would  not  acknowledge  his- 
sovereignty  ?  How  did  he  deal  with  the  Saxons  who  refused  to  be  baptized  ? 
What  did  the  Saxons  then  flo  ?  By  whose  conversion  were  they  appeased  ? 
How  did  he  secure  his  conquests  ?  What  further  wars  did  he  wage  ?  How  far 
did  his  empire  extend  ?     Where  and  when  was  he  proclaimed  Roman  emperor  ? 


109 


r 

^H        the   Roman   imperial  crown,  and  the  people  proclaimed  him  em- 
^H        peror. 

^K  Charlemange  also  endeavored  to  administer  justice  in  his  vast 

^H        realm,  as  far  as  the  many  wars  gave  him  time  to  do  so.    He  appointed 
^H        palsgraves  in  the  different  provinces   in  order  to  do  justice,  and 
^H        annually  sent  out  officers  who  had  to  report  to  him  concerning  the 
^B        execution  of  the  laws.     He  provided  for  the  extension  of  agricul- 
^y        ture,  his  own  estates  being  its  models.     Owing  to  the  want  of  good 
highways,  he  tried  to  promote  commerce  by  inland  navigation.    He 
liked  civilization,  and  endeavored  to  retrieve  by  private  studies  what 
had  been  neglected  in  his  juvenile   instruction.     He    endeavored 
also  to  disseminate  culture  throughout  his  great  empire.     He  at- 
tempted first  to  cultivate  the  minds  of  the  clergymen  and  through 
them    the    people.       He    established   schools    in    connection    with 
cathedrals  and  convents,  and  advanced  the  culture  of  the  native 
language  by  collecting  German  heroic  songs.     He  founded  also  a 
society  for  the  cultivation  of  sciences.     He  honored  and  rewarded 
well-deserving  scholars,  such  as  Alkuin  and  Eginhard.      He  died 
after  having  reigned  46  years  (814  A.  D.),  in  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

His  son  and  successor,  Louis,  called  the  Pious,  being  munificent 
towards  the  clergy,  divided  the  empire  among  his  three  sons,  and 
by  so  doing  caused  great  adversities  to  himself  and  to  the  State. 
As  after  that  one  more  son,  Charles,  was  born  to  him,  he  made  a 
new  partition,  with  which  the  others  were  quite  dissatisfied.  They 
declared  war  against  their  father  and  took  him  prisoner.  He  was, 
in  fact,  soon  liberated,  but  after  some  years  the  war  recommenced ;  the 
emperor  delivered  himself  to  the  sons  ;  Lothaire  put  him  into  a  con- 
vent, and  induced  him  to  do  penance  in  church  {S^;^  A.  D.)  Though 
he  was  obUged  to  set  him  free,  Louis  did  not  get  wiser.  New  parti- 
tions of  the  empire  caused  new  revolts  of  his  son  Louis.  After  the 
death  of  the  father,  Louis  and  Charles  marched  against  Lothaire, 
who  wanted  the  whole  realm  alone,  and  vanquished  him  in  a  great 
battle,  in  which  100,000  Franks  lost  their  Hves  for  their  ambitious 
rulers.  Then  the  ernpire  was  divided  into  three  portions :  Charles 
obtained  France;  Louis,  Germany;  Lothaire,  Italy  and  Lorraine. 

How  did  he  endeavor  to  administer  justice?  To  promote  commerce?  To 
improve  the  culture  of  his  mind  ?  By  what  means  did  he  try  to  disseminate  cul- 
ture ?  By  what  action  did  Louis,  the  Pious,  render  the  country  and  himself 
unhappy  ?  Give  an  account  of  his  wars  with  his  sons.  Why  did  his  sons 
Louis  and  Charles  wage  war  against  their  brother  Lothaire?  How  did  they 
divide  the  empire  ? 


no 

g  so.     England.     Anglo-Saxons.     Alfred  the  Great. 

The  ancient  Britons,  in  order  to  protect  their  country  against  the 
incursions  of  their  northern  neighbors,  the  Picts  and  Scots,  sought 
the  assistance  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  in  Germany  ^  They,  in  fact, 
arrived  under  command  of  Hengist  and  Horst  (449  A.  D.),  but  took 
possession  of  the  country  for  themselves.  The  greater  part  of  the 
inhabitants  crossed  over  to  France,  and  settled  in  the  province 
called,  by  their  name,  Bretagne. 

Among  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings,  Alfred  the  Great  acquired  the 
highest  glory  (891-900  A.  D.)  On  his  accession  the  rapacious 
Danes  (Norsemen)  often  devastated  the  country.  He  fought  in  vain 
against  their  numerous  bands,  and  desparing  of  success,  would  have 
rushed  into  their  swords  to  end  his  life,  had  not  the  hope  of  being  vic- 
torious m  the  future  induced  him  to  conserve  it.  He  retired  to  the 
marshes  of  Somersetshire,  built  a  castle,  and  with  his  few  loyal  com- 
panions made  successful  sallies  upon  the  Danes;  but  they  suffered 
much  from  destitution.  Tradition  reports  that,  under  the  disguise  of 
a  harper,  he  boldly  visited  the  camp  of  his  enemies,  observing  their 
position  and  learning  their  number.  Encouraged  by  his  excursions, 
the  inhabitants  gathered  in  increasing  numbers,  and  soon  he  felt  so 
strong  that  he  dared  to  attack  the  Danes  (878  A.  D.)  He  surrounded 
them  from  all  sides,  and  forced  from  them  the  promise  of  allegiance 
to  him  ;  he,  however,  permitted  them  to  establish  themselves  in  the 
land. 

In  order  to  secure  England  against  new  incursions  by  these 
pirates,  he  built  strong  forts  at  their  usual  places  of  descent,  kept 
many  ships  in  readiness  there,  and  divided  the  population  into  two 
classes,  which  had  to  alternate  in  doing  military  service.  Several 
invasions  of  the  enemies  nevertheless  occurred,  and  at  last  they 
landed  with  two  formidable  fleets  (893  A.  D.) ;  the  Danes  who  had 
settled  in  England  joined  them,  but  Alfred  defeated  them,  and  drove 
the  larger  part  back  to  France  where  they  had  come  from.  They  did 
not  venture  another  incursion  during  his  life-time. 

By  wise  laws  he  restored  order  and  security  in  the  land,  so  that 
it  was  proverbially  said  of  his  government :  "  The  traveler  who 
lost  his  purse  on  the  highway  found  it  the  next  morning  untouched 

§  50.  How  did  England  become  a  possession  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  ? 
Who  was  the  best  of  their  kings  ?  Give  an  account  of  Alfred's  wars  against 
the  Norsemen.  How  did  he  secure  the  land  against  their  incursions  ?  Show 
how  he  restored  security  and  promoted  civilization  in  England. 


Ill 

at  the  same  place."  He  made  a  collection  of  the  Saxon  laws,  and 
being  the  most  learned  man  in  his  kingdom,  he  composed  writings, 
heroical  poems,  and  geographical  works.  He  founded  schools,  e.  g., 
at  Oxford,  the  germ  of  the  celebrated  university  of  that  name.  He 
set  aside  a  considerable  portion  of  his  revenues  for  the  payment  of 
the  salaries  of  teachers,  and  invited  foreign  scholars,  mechanics  and 
colonists  to  the  land.  In  this  way  he  civilized  his  people.  He  was 
himself,  by  his  generous  and  noble  mind  and  simple  ways  of  life, 
their  brightest  example.  His  last  will  was,  "  Englishmen  shall  be 
as  free  as  their  thoughts."  He  attained,  deservedly,  the  appellation 
of  Alfred  the  Great. 


SECOND  OHAPTER-HISTOKY  OP  CIVILIZATION. 


^51.     State    of    Constitutions.     Roman     Law.     Propaga- 
tion  and  Degeneracy   of  Christianity.     Mona- 
ehism.     Mohammedan  Religion. 

In  the  Byzantine  empire  the  government  was  growing  more 
despotic  and  tl^e  people  more  servile.  The  taxes  were  oppressive. 
Since  the  accession  of  Justinian,  even  taxes  were  levied  on  bread 
and  water.  The  public  offices  were  venal.  Justinian  caused  the 
decisions  of  the  ancient  teachers  of  law,  and  the  laws  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  to  be  collected,  adding  thereto  his  own  decrees. 
This  collection,  called  the  Roman  law,  was  recognized  as  the  legal 
authority  in  most  of  the  European  countries,  which  it  pardy  yet 
maintains. 

Hunger,  sterile  soil,  laziness  and  want  of  land,  impelled  the  Ger- 
man nations  to  conquer  the  flourishing  Roman  countries.  They 
then  divided  the  lands  among  themselves,  or  let  them  out.  In  this 
way  the  feudal  system  started  which,  in  the  following  period,  was 
further  organized.     (See  §  6i.) 

Most  of  the  German  nations  embraced  the  Christian  religion. 
In  Germany  it  was  propagated  by  Winfried  (called  Boniface) ;  in 
Switzerland,  by  Gallus,  Columban  and  others ;  in  Ireland,  by  St.. 
Patrick;  in  Saxony,  Charlemagne  established  it  by 'force  of  arms^ 
(see  §  49).     It,  however,  degenerated  mor^  and  more  from  its  orig- 

^51.  What  was  the  political  state  of  the  Byzantine  empire?  How  did  the 
Roman  law  come  into  existence  ?  What  parts  does  it  contain  ?  What  reasons 
caused  the  migration  of  the  Teutonic  nations  ?  Who  propagated  the  Christian 
religion  in  Germany,  Switzerland  and  Ireland  ?    How  did  it  degenerate  ? 


112 

inal  purity  and  simplicity.  Many  ceremonies  and  holidays  were 
established,  pious  persons  idolized,  images  adored,  miraculous  stories 
slyly  invented  and  stupidly  believed.  The  ecclesiastical  laws  be- 
came despotic ;  true  piety  and  moral  conduct  were  little  valued. 
The  disputes  of  the  clergy  increased,  and  ended  often  in  warfare. 
The  worship  of  images  also  caused  bloody  hatred,  because  some 
rejected  them  entirely,  while  others  even  adored  them. 

The  property  of  the  clergy  was  exempt  from  taxation,  their  per- 
sons were  not  amenable  to  civil  jurisdiction,  and  their  residences  and 
the  churches  were  turned  into  asylums  for  criminals;  sometimes, 
too,  for  the  innocent.  In  this  way  they  established  a  State  within 
the  State.  The  popes  soon  acquired  the  superiority  over  the  other 
bishops,  because  the  capital  of  the  empire  (Rome)  was  their  resi- 
dence. After  the  empire  was  separated  into  the  eastern  and  western 
part,  a  vehement  quarrel  about  rank  began,  which  ended  in  a  vic- 
tory of  the  popes  over  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople. 

The  institution  of  convents  and  monasteries  must  also  be  men- 
tioned. Since  olden  times  fantastic  hermits  lived  in  Egypt  and 
Hindostan.  In  Palestine  the  Essenes  had  led  a  solitary  life. 
Among  the  Christians,  Antonius  and  Paul  are  said  to  have  been  the 
first  anachorets.  Both  lived  in  Egypt  in  the  second  century. 
From  Egypt  and  Syria  they  went  to  Italy,  where  Athanasius  intro- 
duced them.  Some  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome ;  others  moved 
farther,  even  as  far  as  the  Black  Sea  and  Palestine.  Among  them 
were  also  rich  ladies. 

The  first  hermits  Hved  frugally.  They  fed  on  fruits  and  bread, 
and  drank  only  water.  They  indulged  in  an  indolent,  contempla- 
tive life,  and  passed  most  of  their  time  in  prayers.  Soiiie  braided 
mats  and  baskets.  They  despised  matrimony,  and  the  greater  part 
of  them  were  visionaries. 

When  monasteries  were  built  by  the  funds  received  from  pious 
bequests,  the  anachorets  retired  into  them  and  became  monks. 
They  ceased  to  work  almost  entirely.  A  few  copied  the  manu- 
scripts of  classical  Greek  and  Roman  literature.  Monastic  life  soon 
grew  exuberant.  Benedict  of  Narsia,  however,  reformed  (529  A. 
D.)  the  degenerated  convents  in  Italy,  by  obliging  the  lazy  monks. 

What  of  ceremonies,  holidays,  idols,  miracles  and  quarrels  of  the  clergy? 
What  privileges  did  the  clergy  acquire  ?  Why  did  the  popes  become  the  supe- 
riors of  the  bishops  ?  In  what  countries  did  the  ancient  hermits  live?  To  what 
country  in  Europe  did  they  go  ?  How  did  they  live  first  ?  What  was  their 
occupation  ?     What  were  the  monks  doing  ?     Who  reformed  them  ? 


113 

besides  praying,  to  cultivate  the  fields,  and  to  instruct  the  youth ; 
but  they  soon  again  became  corrupt.  They  fostered  the  belief  in 
miracles,  devised  an  infinite  number  of  legends,  advanced  the  traffic 
in  relics,  stupefied  the  multitude,  and  often  indulged  in  luxury  and 
debauches.  In  the  following  periods  the  monks  frequently  preached 
sermons  urging  the  people  to  revolt  against  civil  power,  opposed 
the  light  of  sciences  diffiised  by  intelligent  instruction,  and  were 
blind  tools  of  the  popes. 

Mohammed's  doctrine,  called  Islam  (creed,  faith),  is  contained 
in  the  Koran,  the  book  of  religion  of  his  followers,  who  call  them- 
selves Mussulmen  or  Moslems  (the  faithful  ones).  The  contents 
of  the  Koran  are  said  to  have  been  revealed  to  him  by  the  angel 
Gabriel,  and  were  collected  soon  after  his  death.  In  it  he  recom- 
mends faith  in  God  (Allah)  and  Mohammed,  his  prophet;  prayers, 
abstinence  from  wine,  fasting,  charity,  cleanliness  and  ablutions  of 
the  body,  pilgrimages,  and  above  all  virtues,  justice.  Each  person 
ought  to  spend  the  tenth  part  of  his  fortune  for  alms ;  also  to  make 
a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  if  possible,  at  least  once  in  his  life.  The 
Friday  of  every  week  is  set  aside  for  public  worship,  which  consists 
in  prayers  and  sermons.  .  The  Koran  also  calls  Moses  and  Jesus 
prophets,  and  promises  to  the  elect  superabundant  joys  in  the 
future  life,  which  are  of  the  most  sensual  kind.  Mohammed 
allowed  his  followers  to  practice  polygamy,  and  endeavored  to 
make  them  indiiferent  to  all  dangers  of  death  by  the  belief  in  an 
immutable  fate.  Therefore  they  fought  for  their  creed  with  the 
utmost  contempt  of  death.  One  of  the  principal  precepts  of  the 
Koran  is  to  propagate  its  doctrine  everywhere  with  fire  and  sword, 
and  to  destroy  the  mfidels.  Among  the  Mohammedans  also  differ- 
ent sects  arose,  which  made  terrible  religious  wars  against  each 
other. 

^  S2.    The  Arts  and  Sciences.     Arabian  Culture.— Com- 
merce. 

The  arts  and  sciences  could  not  be  nursed  during  the  din  of 
arms  which  shook  the  Occident.  The  barbarians,  both  Christians 
and  Arabians,  destroyed  the  most  beautiful  works  of  human  skill. 

In  what  manner  ?  What  were  often  their  doings  ?  Mention  some  points  of 
the  Mohammedan  religion.  What  book  contains  it  ?  What  virtues  are  recom- 
mended in  the  Koran  ?  What  day  is  the  holiday  of  the  Mohammedans  ?  Why 
did  they  despise  death  ?  What  is  a  principal  precept  of  the  Koran  ?  What  of 
Mohammedan  sects  ?     ^52,     Wliat  sovereigns  favored  the  arts  and  sciences  ? 

(8) 


114 

Schools  were  closed,  libraries  burned,  and  the  reading  of  pagan 
authors  severely  punished.  Towards  the  end  of  the  period,  civili- 
zation found  a  protecting  asylum  at  the  courts  of  Charlemagne 
(see  §  49)  and  Alfred  of  England  (see  §  50),  but  particularly  among 
the  Arabs.  Several  of  their  caliphs  favored  them  in  a  high  degree ; 
some  of  them  were  themselves  artists  and  scholars.  At  the  time  of 
their  rule  in  Spain,  there  were  in  Andalusia  alone  seventy  pubHc 
libraries.  The  Arabs  acquired  great  merit  for  geography,  mathe- 
matics, astronomy,  chemistry — the  latter  science  was  invented  by 
them — and  for  medicine.  They  translated  the^  mathematical,  med- 
ical and  philosophical  works  of  the  Greeks.  In  mathematics  they 
excelled  their  teachers.  Their  astronomical  writings  have  become 
the  foundation  of  modern  astronomy.  In  most  of  the  cities  of 
their  dominion  there  were  observatories,  and  institutes  for  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy.  The  Gothic  architecture  was  also  invented 
by  them.  In  poetry  they  produced  peculiar  tales  (<?.  g.,  the  re- 
nowned "Thousand  and  One  Nights"),  but  no  dramatic  works. 
Being  Orientals  and  Mohammedans,  they  did  not  excel  in  philosophy. 

In  the  Occidental  countries  commerce  could  not  flourish  during 
the  incursions  of  barbarian  nations ;  but  Constantinople  was  an  im- 
portant commercial  town.  Justinian  introduced  the  culture  of  the 
silk- worm  which,  at  that  time,  was  limited  to  China.  As  the  exporta- 
tion of  silk-worms  was  strictly  forbidden,  he  sent  two  monks  to  that 
country,  who  succeeded  in  secretly  bringing  back  eggs  for  seed. 
In  later  times,  the  breeding  of  silk-worms  was  transplanted  from 
the  Grecian  provinces  into  Sicily,  Italy  and  France. 

The  Arabs,  by  their  conquests,  became  master  of  the  commerce 
with  the  Orient.  Their  caravans  passed  through  all  parts  of  Asia, 
and  through  the  northern  and  southern  countries  of  Africa.  As 
long  as  they  had  possession  of  Spain,  the  soil  was  made  fruitful 
through  artificial  irrigation  and  assiduous  culture.  Everywhere  they 
laid  out  fine  gardens.  Cordova,  during  their  government,  was  the 
principal  seat  of  commerce,  industry,  and  the  arts  and  sciences. 

In  what  sciences  did  the  Arabs  acquire  great  merit.  What  kind  of  architec- 
ture did  they  invent  ?  What  kind  of  poetry  did  they  cultivate  ?  Who  introduced 
the  culture  of  the  silk- worm  into  Europe  ?  In  what  manner  ?  Who  became 
master  of  the  commerce  with  the  Orient?  Where  did  their  caravans  pass  to? 
How  was  the  soil  of  Spain  kept  during  their  dominion?     What  of  Cordova? 


115 

EXERCISES. 

Give  a  description  of  the  deeds  and  adventures  of  the  Huns — i,  in  Asia ;  2, 
in  Europe.  Who  was  the  last  hero  of  the  western,  and  who  the  greatest  of  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Roman  empire  ?  Where  and  when  did  the  greatest  battle  of 
the  Occident  take  place  ?  Which  were  the  capitals  of  the  Caliphs,  of  the  Ostro- 
goths and  the  Lombards  ?  In  what  regard  do  Charlemagne  and  Alfred  the 
Great  resemble  each  other  ?  Which  of  the  two  bears  the  surname  of  the  Great 
more  justly?  And  why  ?  How  many  centuries  does  the  migration  of  nations 
comprehend  ?  How  many  years  elapsed  from  the  migration  of  nations  to  the 
division  of  the  Roman  empire  ?  From  Rome's  conquest  by  the  Gauls  to  its 
conquest  by  the  Visigoths  ?  From  the  migration  of  nations  to  the  removal  of 
Romulus  Augustulus  ?  From  the  time  when  Charlemagne  was  alone  ruler,  to 
the  division  of  his  empire  among  his  grandchildren  ?  Flrom  his  coronation  in 
Rome  to  King  Alfred's  death  ?  Where  did,  in  this  period,  the  arts  and  sciences 
most  flourish,  and  what  rulers  deserved  well  of  their  culture  ? 


FIFTH    PERIOD. 

From  the  Decay  of  tl^^e  Empire  of  i^e  Franks  to  the  End 
of  the  Crusades.      I.   German   Empire   in   its  Prinqe; 
2.    Universal     Dominion   of    ti^e     Popes  ; 
3.  Crusades.     From  900  to  1300  A,  D. 


riEST  OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL  HISTOEY. 


1.   PRIME  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE-900-1024  A.  D. 


g  53,     Germany.     Saxon    Emperors.     Henry  I.      Otto  I. 

Conrad  I.,  on  his  death-bed,  recommended  to  the  electors 
Henry  of  Saxony,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  being  the  ablest,  as  his 
successor.  He  was  elected  to  the  throne  (918  A.  D.)  In  the  first 
years  of  his  government  the  Hungarians,  as  usual,  invaded  the 
German  empire.  By  accident  one  of  their  commanders  became  a 
captive  of  Henry.  He  received  his  liberty  on  condition  that  the 
Hungarians 'should  consent  to  a  truce  of  nine  years.     But  Henry 

?  53.  Who  was  the  first  Saxon  emperor  ?  What  enemies  infested  the 
German  empire  ? 


116 

had  to  pay  them  annually  a  tribute  (924  A.  D.)  Meanwhile  he 
improved  this  time  in  drilling  his  soldiers  and  arming  them  better, 
and  in  surrounding  the  open  places  with  strong  walls.  When  the 
enemies,  after  the  expiration  of  the  truce,  demanded  their  annual 
tribute,  he  refused  to  pay  it.  They  then  invaded  Saxony,  but 
Henry  went  to  meet  them,  and  inflicted  upon  them,  at  Merseburg, 
such  a  bloody  defeat  (934  A.  D.)  that  they  did  not  venture  another 
incursion  into  Saxony.  He  protected  the  realm  in  the  north  against 
the  Danes,  and  in  the  east  against  the  Slavonians.  He  elevated  Ger- 
many to  the  first  rank  of  power  m  Europe.  There  is  no  vestige  of 
injustice  or  rigor  apparent  during  his  long  government.  A  short 
time  before  he  died  he  assembled  the  grandees  of  the  empire,  in  order 
to  designate  his  successor.  He  had  several  sons ;  yet  neither  the 
eldest,  nor  another  in  whose  favor  the  queen  was  prepossessed, 
seemed  to  him  to  deserve  the  succession,  but  he  proposed  Otto  to 
the  assembly,  who  was  elected  after  Henry's  death  (936  A.  D.) 

Otto  I.  was  valiant,  but  also  warlike  and  ambitious.  Berenger 
was  then  ruler  in  Italy,  and  wished  to  force  Adelheid,  wife  of  the 
deceased  king,  to  marry  his  son.  He  took  her  prisoner,  and  shut 
her  up  in  a  solitary  tower.  But  she  escaped  by  the  help  of  a  faithful 
servant,  and  appHed  to  Otto  for  assistance,  offering  him  her  hand 
and  the  crown  of  Italy.  Otto  accepted  the  offer,  went  to  Italy  (951 
A.  D.),  compelled  Berenger, to  do  homage,  and  married  Adelheid. 

When  the  Hungarians  again  invaded  Germany,  he  encountered 
them  courageously,  and  gave  them  battle  at  Augsburg  (955  A.  D.) 
The  enemies  first  assailed  the  rear  lines  of  his  army,  routed  them,  and 
plundered  the  baggage.  Twice  the  issue  of  the  combat  was  uncer- 
tain; finally  the  Germans  gained  the  victory.  The  Hungarians 
underwent  a  terrible  defeat ;  most  of  them  were  cut  down,  and  two 
of  their  commanders  hanged.  After  that  day  they  ventured  no 
more  incursions  into  Germany. 

Meanwhile  Italy  had  become  discontented  over  the  administra- 
tion of  Berenger;  Otto  marched  against  him  once  more  (961  A.J).)? 
deposed  him,  and  caused  himself  to  be  elected  king  of  Italy  and 
Roman  emperor.  Soon  after,  as  Pope  John  XII.  himself  joined  Ber- 
enger, being  besides  accused  of  the  most  shameful  deeds.  Otto 
ordered  him  to  be  deposed,  and  a  new  pope  to  be  elected.     The 

How  did  Henry  protect  it  against  their  incursions  ?  Where  did  he  defeat  them  ? 
In  what  virtue  did  he  excel?  Whom  did  he  designate  as  his  successor?  What 
of  Otto  I.  and  Berenger?  In  what  battle  did  Otto  defeat  the  Hungarians  ?  Why 
did  he  depose  Berenger  ? 


I 


117 

followers  of  John  ventured  to  attack  Otto,  but  he  overpowered  them 
in  the  streets  of  Rome ;  they  expelled  the  new  pope ;  he  led  him 
back,  and  as  the  last  one  had  died,  gave  them  another  one.  When 
they  also  expelled  the  latter,  he  blocked  up  the  city  so  closely  that 
the  greatest  distress  soon  set  in.  The  Romans  were  compelled  to 
surrender  and  acknowledge  the  new  pope.  The  troublesome  Ber- 
enger  was  brought  to  Germany,  where  he  died.  Otto  protected  the 
empire  also  against  the  predatory  expeditions  of  the  Danes  and 
Slavonians,  and  subjected  the  latter  as  far  as  the  Oder.  After  having 
reigned  a  long  time,  he  died  generally  honored  and  feared. 


2.  UNIVEESAL  DOMINION  OF  THE  POPES-1024-1300  A.  D. 


§  S4.     Germany      (Continued).      Franconian    Emperors. 
Henry  IV.  and  Gregory  VII. 

Among  the  emperors  of  the  Franconian  House  Henry  IV.  be- 
came known  chiefly  through  his  conflict  with  Pope  Gregory  VII. 
Being  already  the  German  king  when  only  six  years  old,  ambitious 
priests  snatched  him  from  his  mother  and  gave  him  a  poor  educa- 
tion. The  archbishop  of  Bremen,  especially,  fostered  the  propensity 
for  pleasure  in  the  boy,  and  allowed  him  to  have  intercourse  with 
immoral  lads ;  he  also  instilled  into  his  mind  a  hatred  against  the 
Saxons,  whereby  Henry  made  himself  and  Germany  unhappy.  De- 
clared of  age  when  only  sixteen  years  old,  he  treated  the  Saxons 
rudely.  As  they  revolted,  he  defeated  them,  but  promised  to  treat 
them  mildly,  if  they  would  lay  down  their  arms.  They  did  so,  and 
delivered  themselves  into  his  hands,  when  he  imprisoned  them. 
Badly  deceived,  they  applied  to  Pope  Gregory  VII. 'for  redress. 
The  pope,  menacing  him  with  anathema,  summoned  him  to  come  to 
Rome,  as  if  he  were  his  judge.  In  return,  Henry  convoked  some 
German  bishops,  whom  he  caused  to  pronounce  sentence  against 
the  pope,  and  to  declare  him  deposed.  The  pope  promulgated  his 
anathema  against  the  bishops  and  also  against  Henry,  declared  him 
to  have  forfeited  his  royal  dignity,  and  absolved  the  Germans  from 
the  oath  of  allegiance  due  to  Henry.  Most  of  the  German  princes 
then  declared  to  the  king  that,  as  long  as  he  remained  excommuni- 

What  was  the  end  of  Berenger  ?  How  did  Otto  handle  the  popes  ?  |  54- 
For  what  struggles  is  Henry  IV.  known  in  history  ?  How  was  he  educated  ? 
How  did  he  treat  the  Saxons  ?  How  did  they  revenge  themselves  for  his  treach- 
ery ?  Where  did  Gregory  summon  him  to  go  ?  Was  he  right  to  summon  him  ? 
Did  Henry  obey  ? 


118 


cated,  they  would  not  acknowledge  him  as  their  king,  and  that  if  he 
were  not  absolved  from  the  anathema  within  a  year,  they  would  pro- 
ceed to  elect  another. 

In  this  critical  situation  Henry  at  last  resolved  to  go  to  Rome, 
Nobody  but  his  faithful  wife,  whom  he  had  often  grieved,  his  little 
son,  and  one  servant  accompanied  him.  As  his  enemies  had  ob- 
structed all  passes  through  the  Alps,  he  had  to  travel  on  detours,  in 
the  winter  season,  over  the  mountains,  which  were  covered  with 
snow  and  ice.  He  accomplished  the  journey  amid  many  dangers. 
When  he  arrived  in  Italy  many  bishops  and  princes  forthwith  gath- 
ered around  him,  offering  him  their  assistance ;  but  Henry  had 
become  so  dejected  that  he  dared  not  accept  their  proposals. 

Gregory,  who  had  already  started  for  Germany,  in  order  to  man- 
age Henry's  trial  there,  learning  of  his  arrival,  quickly  looked  for  a 
shelter,  and  went  into  the  castle  of  Conossa,  belonging  to  his  friend 
Matilda,  countess  of  Tuscane.  Here  Henry  had  to  stay  (1077 
A.  D.),  between  the  second  and  third  walls  of  the  castle,  in  peniten- 
tials,  and  barefooted,  from  morning  until  evening  during  three  days, 
not  allowed  to  take  the  least  food;  and  he  was  obliged  to  beseech 
Gregory  to  dispense  with  the  anathema.  Finally  the  pope,  through 
the  intercession  of  Matilda  and  other  powerful  friends,  consented  to 
do  so,  but  on  the  condition  that  Henry  should  abstain  from  the  gov- 
ernment until  the  German  sovereigns  would  decide  that  he  could 
continue  to  be  their  king. 

But  the  people  did  not  forsake  Henry ;  the  citizens  of  the  towns 
and  the  peasants  flocked  around  him,  and  now  he  went  again  to 
Italy,  not  as  a  penitent,  but  at  the  head  of  an  army,  in  order  to 
chastise  his  enemy.  He  besieged  Rome,  and  appointed  an  anti- 
pope.  In  the  spring  of  the  next  year  he  conquered  the  city,  and 
was  anointed  as  emperor  by  the  latter.  Gregory  still  defended  him- 
self in  the  Angels'  citadel.  The  duke  of  Puglia,  though,  released 
him,  and  conducted  him  safely  to  Salerno ;  but  here,  in  a  foreign 
place,  he  keenly  felt  that  "he  was  forsaken  and  precipitated  from  the 
summit  of  his  power.  Before  his  death  he  again  excommunicated 
Henry.  One  of  his  successors  repeated  the  anathema.  The  em- 
peror had  to  struggle  against  other  adversaries,  whom  even  his  sons 
joined.  At  last  the  helpless  man  died  ( 1 106  A.  D.)  But  the  implacable 

Describe  his  journey.  Who  offered  him  assistance  in  ISaly?  Did  Henry 
accept  it  ?  Into  what  castle  had  he  to  go  ?  To  whom  did  the  castle  belong  ? 
How  did  the  pope  treat  him  there  ?  Who  did  not  forsake  Henry  ?  How  did  he 
chastise  the  pope  ?     What  of  the   end  of    Gregory  ? 


119 

priests  begrudged  rest  even  to  his  dead  body ;  twice  he  was  buried, 
and  twice  pulled  out  of  the  grave,  because  the  curse  of  anathema 
rested  upon  him.  The  pope  finally  revoked  it ;  then  Henry's  son 
buried  the  corpse  once  more. 

§  55.     Continued.     Emperors  of   the  Family  Hohen- 
stauffen.     Frederic  Barbarossa.     Arnold  of 
Brescia.     First    Contest  of  the    Lom- 
bard Cities  for  Liberty. 

The  family  of  the  Hohenstauffen  (Suabian)  emperors,  who,  in 
honor  of  their  ancestors'  castle,  were  also  called  Waiblingers,  ruled 
more  than  one  hundred  years  (i  138-1254  A.  D.)  Their  adversaries 
were  the  powerful  Welfs,  descendants  of  the  Margrave  Welf.  The 
combat  of  the  followers  of  the  two  houses  was  continued,  especially 
in  Italy,  where  they  were  called  GhibelUnes  and  Guelfs,  till  the  fall 
of  the  Hohenstauffen.     The  Guelfs  were  partisans  of  the  popes. 

At  that  time  an  Italian  priest,  Arnold  of  Brescia,  an  ingenious 
and  high-principled  man,  conceived  the  idea  of  establishing  the 
primitive  simplicity  of  the  church,  according  to  which  the  clergy 
ought  not  to  possess  civil  power,  but  ought  to  apply  themselves  to 
their  spiritual  vocation  only.  He  also  wanted  the  secular  power 
of  the  popes  to  be  abolished ;  besides,  he  desired  to  deliver  Italy 
from  the  government  of  the  German  emperors.  His  gigantic 
design  elicited  enthusiasm  in  the  whole  country,  except  from  the 
clergy ;  the  popes  excommunicated  him.  Arnold  fled  to  the  quiet 
valleys  of  Switzerland,  where  he  obtained  a  safe  asylum.  Meantime 
the  Romans  held  a  meeting,  at  which  they  renounced  allegiance  to 
the  pope  and  declared  themselves  free.  Arnold  returned  to  Rome 
(1145  ^-  I^O'  accompanied  by  large  bands  he  had  engaged  in  Switz- 
erland. The  Romans  expelled  the  pope,  and,  imitating  ancient 
Rome,  elected  a  senate,  consuls  and  tribunes  of  the  people.  But 
the  Emperor  Frederic  I.,  surnamed  Barbarossa  (Redbeard),  came  to 
Italy  with  an  army,  subdued  the  revolted  towns,  forced  an  entrance 
into  Rome,  and  vanquished  the  inhabitants  of  the  city.  Arnold 
had  again  taken  to  flight,  and  kept  himself  hidden.  The  pope 
summoned  the  emperor  to  have  the  heretic  delivered  to  him.  Fred- 
eric obeyed  the  pope  with  alacrity,  because  he  hated  Arnold,  who 

What  more  concerning  Henry's  fate  i  g  55.  •  What  were  the  Hohenstauflfen 
and  Welfs  called  by  Italians  ?  Give  a  sketch  of  the  life  of  Arnold  of  Brescia. 
What  was  the  aim  of  his  efforts  ?  What  in  regard  to  priests  and  popes  ?  Where 
did  he  find  an  asylum  ?  What  reforms  did  the  Romans  make  ?  Who  opposed  them  ? 


120 

was  a  friend  of  the  people.  His  spies  soon  ferreted  him  out.  In  a 
dark  night  Arnold  was  dragged  to  Rome  and  immediately  burned 
(1155  A.  D.)     His  memory  was  highly  venerated  by  the  Romans. 

Frederic,  desiring  to  restore  the  power  of  the  ancient  Roman 
emperors  in  Italy,  perceived  that  the  liberty  of  the  Lombard  cities 
must  be  destroyed ;  therefore  he  continued  to  combat  them.  They 
resisted  him  vaHantly  during  twenty-five  years  (1158-11S3  A.  D.) 
The  popes  were  their  faithful  allies.  Frederic  dealt  cruelly  with  the 
cities.  During  the  second  siege  of  Milan  (1162  A.  D.),  he  caused 
the  captives  to  be  hung,  and  the  right  hands  of  the  carriers  who 
conveyed  provisions  to  the  city  to  be  cut  off.  The  inhabitants  were 
compelled  to  come  into  his  presence  with  ropes  around  their  necks, 
and  to  implore  his  pardon.  The  walls  and  main  buildings  of  their 
city  were  razed,  and  the  people  dispersed  into  open  boroughs.  The 
other  cities  experienced  a  similar  fate.  The  imperial  governors 
added  scoff  to  the  already  heavy  oppression.  Every  trace  of 
nationality  was  to  disappear.  The  Lombards  thus  far  had  lived  in 
disharmony.  'Schooled  by  their  adversity,  they  re-established  har- 
mony and  made  a  treaty  of  alliance,  in  which  the  pope  also  took 
part.  Now  Frederic  was  defeated  everywhere,  and  a  contagious 
disease  in  Rome  destroyed  a  great  portion  of  his  army.  Under- 
going great  difficulties,  he  was  obliged  to  retreat  over  the  Alps 
(1108  A.  D.)  He  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life;  nay,  in  Susa  he 
would  have  been  slain  in  bed,  if  a  faithful  knight  had  not  taken  his 
place,  pretending  to  be  the  emperor. 

After  several  years  he  returned,  but  met  with  no  better  success 
in  fighting  than  before.  The  Milanese,  whose  city  had  been  re- 
built, obstructed  the  route  of  his  army.  He  tried  to  enforce  a  pas- 
sage, and  attacked  the  Lombards  at  Legnano  (i  176  A.  D.)  Victory 
first  inclined  towards  his  side,  and  only  a  band  of  Milanese,  defend- 
ing their  main  banner,  still  kept  the  ground ;  but  now  the  troops  of 
Brescia  broke  forth  from  an  ambuscade  and  renewed  the  battle. 
The  Germans  were  totally  defeated.  The  emperor  lost  his  flag  and 
shield,  and  his  life  was  endangered.  He  was  compelled  again  to 
take  to  flight,  and  to  make  peace  (1183  A.  D.)     The  cities  recov- 

What  was  the  final  fate  of  Arnold  ?  Who  honored  his  memory  ?  Against 
what  cities  did  Frederic  I.  wage  war  ?  Why  ?  How  did  he  deal  with  them  ? 
With  Milan  ?  What  good  effect  did  the  fate  of  Milan  produce  in  the  Lombards  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  the  re-establishment  of  harmony  ?  Who  was  defeated 
everywhere  ?  Where  was  Frederic  vanquished  after  his  return  ?  Give  an  ac- 
count of  the  battle. 


121 

ered  their  ancient  rights  and  privileges.     He  lost  his  hfe,  after  some 
years,  in  a  crusade  (1190  A.  D.)     (See  §  60.) 

§  36.     Concluded.    Frederic    II.     Second    Contest   of  the 

Lombards  for  Freedom.     Conradin. 

Sicilian  Vespers. 

Frederic  II.,  deferring  a  crusade  he  had  promised  when  he  was 
crowned,  was  excommunicated  by  Gregory  IX.,  and  the  excommuni- 
cation was  repeated  when  he,  being  outlawed,  started  on  the  crusade. 
While  he  was  in  Palestine  fighting  the  infidels,  the  pope  desolated 
his  Italian  possessions.  Therefore  Frederic,  having  returned  from 
that  country,  turned  his  arms  against  him  (1230  A.  D.),  routed  his 
soldiers,  and  forced  him  to  withdraw  the  promulgated  anathema. 
Like  his  grandfather,  he  also  undertook  the  combat  against  the 
Lombards  (1236  A.  D.),  which  was  most  obstinate,  for  the  jjurpose 
of  depriving  them  of  their  maintained  immunities.  The  common 
danger  rapidly  reunited  the  discordant  cities.  They  also  found  con- 
federates. First  they  allied  with  the  son  of  the  emperor,  Henry, 
who  had  risen  against  his  father  in  Germany.  Henry  was  van- 
quished, and  expired  in  a  prison.  Frederic  came  to  Italy  and 
joined  the  governor  Ezzelino,  called  the  Ferocious — a  demon  in 
human  form.  This  man  took  1 1,000  citizens  of  Padua  prisoners 
(1256  A.  D.),  cut  off  the  arms  and  legs  of  those  who  tried  to  es- 
cape, and  used  all  so  cruelly  that  only  200  survived.  Aided  by  this 
monster,  the  emperor  succeeded  in  dispersing  the  army  of  the  cit- 
ies. But  forthwith  another  enemy,  the  duke  of  Austria,  rose  against 
him.  He  utterly  defeated  the  imperial  army,  and  the  emperor 
had  hard  work  to  vanquish  him.  Frederic  then,  with  a  vast  army, 
hastened  again  to  Italy ;  even  10,000  Mohammedans  enlisted  in  it. 
The  cities  were  entirely  defeated  (1237  A.  D.),  and  most  of  them 
taken.  'Their  ruin  was  imminent,  but  Frederic's  severity  pushed 
them  to  the  utmost  resistance.  Milan  ought  again  to  surrender  at 
discretion,  but  the  inhabitants,  foreboding  the  terrible  doom  which 
threatened  them,  preferred  to  die,  and  defended  themselves  with  the 
boldness  of  lions.  Their  example  rekindled  the  courage  of  the 
other   cities,    and   soon    they  gained  as  new,  powerful   allies,"  the 

What  was  the  result  of  his  defeat?  ^  56,  Why  was  Frederic  II.  twice  ex- 
communicated? Who  desolated  his  Italian  possessions  ?  What  revenge  did  he 
take  on  the  pope  ?  Against  what  cities  did  he  also  fight  ?  What  allies  did  the 
Lombards  have  ?  How  did  Ezzelino  deal  with  the  prisoners  of  Padua  ?  What 
of  the  duke  of  Austria  ?     Of  Mohammedan  soldiers  ?     Of  Milan  ? 


122 

Genoese,  Venetians  and  Gregory  who,  like  all  the  popes,  hated 
the  imperial  dominion  in  Italy. 

Pope  Gregory,  after  having  in  vain  admonished  Frederic  to  treat 
the  Lombards  mildly,  hurled  a  three-fold  anathema  against  him. 
The  emperor  invaded  the  papal  dominions,  and  conquered  almost 
all  of  them.  To  such  heavy  blows  the  pope,  who  was  almost  a  cen- 
tenarian, succumbed  (1241  A.  D.)  But  soon  another  quite  as 
formidable  a  combatant.  Innocent  IV.,  took  his  place.  The  pope, 
Hot  being  safe  in  Rome,  fled  to  Lyons,  held  a  synod  there,  reiterated 
the  excommunication,  absolved  Frederic's  subjects  from  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  declared  all  his  dominions  forfeited,  and  summoned  the 
Germans  to  elect  another  king.  Immediately  two  pretenders  rose 
against  Frederic.  They  engaged  his  arms  in  Germany,  while  the 
Lombards  continued  the  combat  in  Italy  with  great  activity. 

Their  fate  was  decided  before  Parma.  Frederic  beleaguered  this 
city,  building  in  front  of  it,  for  this  purpose,  another  town  which,  as 
a  password  of  his  victory,  he  called  Vittoria.  But  one  day  while 
he  was  hunting,  and  his  careless  soldiers  took  their  ease,  the  be- 
sieged inhabitants  hazarded  a  sally,  defeated  his  army,  and  destroyed 
Vittoria  (1248  A.  D.)  His  sons  were  beaten  on  all  posts.  He 
himself  was  sick.  Soon  after  he  died  (1250  A.  D.)  Finally,  the 
Lombards  became  entirely  independent  (1259  A.  D.) 

When  the  pretenders  had  also  perished,  the  clerical  electors  sold 
the  royal  seat  of  Germany  to  two  foreign  princes.  The  wildest 
anarchy  followed ;  might  took  the  place  of  right.  All  waged  war 
against  each  other.  This  deplorable  condition  of  things  lasted 
fifteen  years  (1257-1272  A.  D.) 

The  house  of  Hohenstauffen  terminated  in  a  pitiful  manner. 
Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  the  French  king,  Louis  IX.,  took 
Naples  and  Sicily  in  fee  from  Pope  Urban  IV.  Conradin,  Freder- 
ic's grandson,  desiring  to  seize  his  patrimony  from  Charles,  sold  his 
dominions,  levied  an  army,  and  ventured  a  campaign  against  him. 
He  lost  the  decisive  battle  at  Naples  (1268  A.  D.),  was  taken  pris- 
oner and  executed. 

But  a  just  retaliation  overtook  the  royal  murderer.     He  afflicted 

What  allies  did  they  gain  ?  In  what  manner  did  the  Popes  Gregory  and  In- 
nocent fight  Frederic?  Before  what  city  was  the  fate  of  the  cities  decided? 
What  of  Vittoria?  Of  the  sally  of  the  besieged  ?  What  was  the  final  result  of 
the  contest  ?  How  long  did  the  anarchy  in  Germany  last  ?  What  was  the  doom 
of  the  last  descendant  of  the  Hohenstauffen  ?  How  did  Charles  of  Anjou  govern 
the  Sicilians  ? 


123 

the  Sicilians  so  cruelly  that  a  conspiracy  was  secretly  planned 
against  him,  which  was  suddenly  put  into  execution  in  Palermo,  on 
Easter  Monday,  as  people  were  going  to  vespers.  The  signal  for  it 
was  an  insult  which  a  Frenchman  offered  to  a  young  lady.  He 
was  so  impudent  as  to  assault  her  in  the  street,  asserting  that  she 
must  have  a  dagger  hidden  in  her  clothes.  In  a  moment  a  thou- 
sand daggers  were  bared.  The  insulter  was  stabbed,  and  thousands 
of  his  countrymen  fell  with  him.  From  Palermo  the  insurrection 
spread  over  the  whole  island;  everywhere  the  Frenchmen  were 
doomed.  They  call  this  event  "  Sicilian  vespers."  The  inhabitants 
then,  in  accordance  with  Conradin's  last  will,  called  Peter  of  Arra- 
gonia  to  the  throne. 

?  57.     France  and  England.     Hugh   Capet.     William  the 

Conqueror.     Wars   Between   England  and 

Scotland.    The  Albigenses. 

One  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the  empire  of  the  Carlovin- 
gians  had  been  divided  at  Verdun  (see  §  49),  'Hugh  Capet,  the 
powerful  count  of  Paris,  put  an  end  to  it,  and  founded  a  new 
dynasty  (987  A.  D.)  In  England,  on  the  death  of  Edward 
the  Confessor,  Harold,  son  of  the  earl  of  Godwin,  took 
possession  of  the  throne;  but  William,  duke  of  Normandy, 
to  whom  the  late  king  had  either  bequeathed  or  purposed 
the  succession,  at  the  head  of  60,000  men,  went  over  to  Eng- 
land, fought  the  bloody  battle  at  Hastings  with  Harold,  and 
gained  the  victory  (1066  A.  D.)  Harold  was  killed  in  battle;  the 
Engligh  army  was  nearly  destroyed,  and  a  fourth  part  of  the  Nor- 
mans slain.  The  victory  gave  to  William  the  title  of  the  Conquerer. 
He  divided  the  land  into  60,000  fiefs,  of  which  he  reserved  a  great 
share  for  himself,  so  that  he  was  the  richest  man  of  his  age ;  the 
rest  was  divided  among  his  soldiers.  The  inhabitants  were  dispos- 
sessed and  became  serfs.  In  the  schools  the  French  dialect  of 
Normandy  was  introduced,  from  which  the  modern  English  lan- 
guage originated.  The  inhabitants  heartily  hated  the  tyrant,  and 
seditions  were  rife  during  his  government.     After  every  insurrection 

What  was  the  consequence  of  his  misrule  ?  Give  a  report  of  the  Sicilian 
vespers.  ^57.  What  count  founded  a  new  dynasty  in  France?  When? 
What  duke  waged  war  against  king  Harold  in  England  ?  In  what  battle  did  the 
rivals  meet  ?  Who  was  victorious  ?  What  name  was  bestowed  upon  William 
in  consequence  ?  How  did  he  divide  the  country  ?  How  did  he  use  the  inhabit- 
ants ?    What  language  was  introduced  in  the  schools  ? 


124 

he  became  more  cruel.  The  news  of  his  death  (1087  A.  D.)  eHcited 
great  exultation.  Henry  II.,  son  of  his  granddaughter,  besides  Eng- 
land, possessed  the  third  part  of  France.  His  eldest  son,  Richard, 
surnamed  the  Lion-hearted,  after  plundering  his  subjects  of  an  im- 
mense sum  of  money,  embarked  on  a  crusade  to  Palestine  (see 
§  60).  He  was  succeeded  by  his  profligate  brother,  John,  surnamed 
Lackland  (1199  A.  D.)  He  seized  the  children  of  his  vassals  as 
hostages,  in  order  to  be  assured  of  their  loyalty.  He  caused  also 
his  nephew  to  be  killed,  because  he  had  a  nearer  claim  to  the 
throne  than  himself.  Philip  Augustus,  of  France,  took  advantage 
of  this  crime,  and  dispossessed  John,  who  was  his  feudal  tenant,  of 
the  greatest  part  of  the  French  lands  (1204  A.  D.)  John  soon  in- 
curred even  a  worse  conflict  with  Innocent  III.  This  pope  had 
incompetently  caused  the  election  of  an  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  as  the  king  rejected  the  election,  he  promulgated  an  interdict 
against  England,  and  the  anathema  against  John,  absolved  the  sub- 
jects from  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  summoned  Philip  Augustus  to 
conquer  the  land.  John,  however,  yielded  to  a  cowardly  submis- 
sion, swore  allegiance  to  the  pope,  and  agreed  to  hold  his  kingdom 
tributary  to  the  Holy  See.  Induced  by  such  a  gain,  the  pope  re- 
voked the  interdict  and  anathema,  and  desired  Philip  to  make  peace. 
But  the  latter,  dissatisfied  at  having  to  arm  his  soldiers  for  nothing, 
marched  against  John,  and  utterly  defeated  him,  visiting  upon  him 
complete  destruction  (1214  A.  D.)  The  barons,  provoked  by  the 
tyranny  of  their  king,  beheld  the  well-timed  moment,  took  up-  arms 
against  him,  seized  London,  and  compelled  him,  in  conjunction 
with  the  clergy,  to  sign  the  celebrated  Magna  Charta^  or  great 
charter  of  rights  and  liberties,  through  which  the  permanent  foun- 
dation of  British  freedom  was  laid.  As  soon  as  John  felt  free  again, 
he  declared  the  document  null  and  void,  and  commenced  war 
against  his  vassals,  but  to  the  joy  of  all  Englishmen,  one  year  there- 
after he  died.  The  English  kings  attempted  also  to  subjugate  Scot- 
land, to  which  country  they  laid  claim  by  the  rights  of  fealty  and 
succession;  but  the  Scotch  kings  refused  to  do  them  homage.     As 

What  of  Henry  XL?  Of  Richard,  the  Lion-hearted  ?  Of  John  Lackland  ? 
What  crime  did  he  commit  against  his  nephew  ?  Who  despoiled  him  of  his 
French  possessions  ?  What  was  the  cause  of  his  struggle  with  Pope  Innocent 
III.?  Who  was  the  champion  of  the  pope  ?  On  what  terms  did  the  latter  make 
peace  ?  Who  defeated  John  ?  What  document  was  he  compelled  to  grant  to  the 
barons  ?  What  about  his  resistance  ?  By  what  right  did  the  English  kings  claim 
the  dominion  of  Scotland  ?     Who  opposed  them  ? 


125 

John  Baliol  and  Robert  Bruce  were  competitors  for  the  Scotch 
crown,  they  submitted  their  claims  to  the  decision  of  Edward  I., 
king  of  England.  The  latter  decided  in  favor  of  BaHol,  on  condi- 
tion of  his  becoming  a  vassal  of  the  English  king.  Baliol  could  not 
brook  the  humiHating  acts  of  vassalage  required  of  him.  War  be- 
tween England  and  Scotland  followed,  and  Baliol,  being  defeated 
in  the  great  battle  of  Dunbar,  was  forced  to  submit  to  Edward. 
Scarcely,  however,  had  the  latter  crossed  the  frontiers,  when  the 
Scots  reasserted  their  independence,  under  the  brave  Sir  William 
Wallace,  defeated  the  English,  and  recovered  the  whole  of  Scotland 
as  rapidly  as  it  had  been  lost.  The  war  went  on,  and  they  were 
again  vanquished  and  subdued  (1305  A.  D.)  The  cause  of  their 
freedom  was  revived  by  Robert  Bruce,  grandson  of  the  Bruce  men- 
tioned before  this.  Edward  II.  marched  against  him  at  the  head  of 
more  than  100,000  men,  but  being  met  by  Bruce  at  the  head  of 
litde  more  than  a  third  of  that  number,  he  experienced  a  total  defeat 
in  the  battle  at  Bannockburn,  which  established  the  independence  of 
Scotland  (1314  A.  D.) 

In  France,  during  this  period,  the  Albigenses  were  cruelly  perse- 
cuted. They  were  a  harmless  sect,  deriving  their  name  from  Alby, 
a  town  in  southern  France.  Their  leader  being  named  Peter  Wald, 
they  were  also  called  Waldenses.  They  rejected  baptism,  the 
Catholic  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  supper,  the  popes,  bishops,  indul- 
gences and  purgatory ;  they  censured  the  vices  of  the  clergy,  and 
led  a  peaceable,  charitable  Hfe.  Pope  Innocent  III.  established  an 
Inquisitional  tribunal,  and  commanded  that  a  crusade  be  preached 
against  them,  because  one  of  the  inquisitors  was  murdered  (1207  A. 
D.)  The  count  of  Toulouse,  who  was  suspected  of  having  insti- 
gated the  foul  deed,  was  forced  to  participate  in  the  crusade,  and  to 
fight  his  own  subjects.  Whole  towns  and  villages  were  destroyed, 
and  their  inhabitants  extirpated  by  fire,  sword  and  rope.  In  the 
town  of  Beziers  alone  20,000  persons,  without  any  regard  to  age  or 
sex,  were  killed,  and  7,000  of  them  burned  in  a  church.  The  cruel 
war  was  continued  till  the  son  of  the  unhappy  count  had  lost  his  best 
land,  which  was  taken  by  the  French  kings. 

Was  Baliol  successful?  Did  the  Scots  submit?  Who  was  their  brave 
leader?  Who  rescued  them  again?  In  what  battle?  What  religious  tenets 
did  the  Albigenses  hold  ?  What  pope  persecuted  them  ?  Give  an  account  of 
the  crusade  against  them.  What  happened  in  the  town  of  Beziers  ?  What  of 
the  count  of  Toulouse  ? 


126 

§  58.      Northern   States  of  Europe.      Normans.     Russia. 

Mongols. 

I.  The  inhabitants  of  the  three  countries,  Sweden,  Norway  and 
Derwiark,  which,  in  common,  bore  the  name  of  Scandinavia,  be- 
longed to  the  family  of  the  German  nations,  and  were  formerly  called 
Normans  (Norsemen).  They  were  bold  mariners,  who  furnished 
Iceland  with  settlers,  and  also  discovered  Greenland  and  some  parts 
of  North  America  (985  A.  D.)  But  they  frequently  undertook  also 
piratical  expeditions  to  Germany,  England,  France  and  even  to 
Spain  and  Italy,  secretly  landed  on  the  coasts  of  these  countries, 
desolated  and  pillaged  them,  and  carried  the  inhabitants  away  as 
slaves.  They  also  made  conquests.  In  France,  they  occupied  Nor- 
mandy and  Brittany  (Bretagne).  From  the  Greeks  they  seized  lower 
Italy,  and  from  the  Saracens,  Sicily. 

In  Denmark,  Knut  the  Great  (1015-1036A.  D.)  and  Margaret, 
were  powerful.  The  former  was  also  ruler  over  Norway  and  Eng- 
land. He  embraced  Christianity  and  promoted  agriculture.  Mar- 
garet, called  also  "  the  Semiramis  of  the  North,"  ruled  over  Den- 
mark, Sweden  and  Norway,  and  united  the  three  kingdoms,  by 
the  treaty  of  Calmar,  into  one  monarchy  (1397  A.  D.)  In  the  next 
period  Sweden  separated  from  Denmark,  choosing  to  be  ruled  by 
State  governors.  Norway  remained  united  with  Denmark  till  the 
present  century  (1814  A.  D.) 

II.  In  Russia  and  Poland  the  numerous  Slavonian  tribes  were 
settled,  who  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  moved  forward  as  far 
as  and  beyond  the  Elbe.  They  founded  several  States ;  their  most 
important  towns  were  Kief  and  Novgorod.  One  of  their  chieftains, 
Rurik  (about  900  A.  D.),  possessed  a  territory  extending  from  Kief 
to  Novgorod.  His  widow,  Olga,  was  converted  to  the  Greek 
Church,  which,  under  Vladimir  I.,  became  the  established  church 
of  the  State.  He  divided  (987  A.  D.)  the  realm  among  his  twelve 
sons.  In  this  way  several  principalities  sprung  up.  One  of  their 
sovereigns  was  called  grand-duke.  First  the  State  of  Kief,  and 
later  that  of  Moscow,  was  the  grand-duchy. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  Russia  became  a  Mongolian  province, 

\  58.  Who  were  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Sweden,  Norway  and  Denmark  ? 
What  lands  did  the  Normans  discover  ?  What  of  their  expeditions  ?  What 
conquests  did  they  make  ?  What  queen  united  the  three  kingdoms  ?  By 
what  treaty  ?  What  tribes  were  settled  in  Russia  and  Poland  ?  Which  were 
their  most  important  towns  ?  To  what  church  were  they  converted  ?  How  did 
Vladimir  I.  divide  his  reahn  ?     When  did  Russia  become  a  Mongolian  province  ? 


127 

and  remained  so  during  240  years  (1237-1477  A.  D.)  At  last,  Ivan 
(John  III.),  delivered  the  land  from  the  foreign  dominion,  but  he 
also  deprived  the  towns  of  their  liberty.  He  subjected  all  the  other 
principaliti€?s,  and  other  countries  besides. 

III.  Genghis  Khan  (Temudshin),  the  son  of  a  petty  Mongol 
prince,  had  elevated  hmiself  to  the  dignity  of  lord  of  all  the  pasto- 
ral nations  throughout  the  vast  plains  of  Tartary.  He  entered 
China  over  the  long  wall,  and  took  its  capital  (1210  A.  D.)  In 
the  north  he  also  advanced  into  Siberia  as  far  as  the  borders  of 
Europe,  and  in  the  west  he  conquered  the  lands  as  far  as  the  Indus. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  were  indifferently  killed,  whole  nations 
destroyed,  and  the  largest  and  most  prosperous  cities  ruined ;  neither 
were  the  treasures  of  sciences  and  arts,  institutes  and  libraries  spared. 
The  sons  of  Genghis  Khan  also  invaded  Russia  and  defeated  a  large 
army,  but  then  retired.  At  last,  destruction  was  also  visited  upon 
Europe.  Octai,  one  of  his  sons,  sent  his  nephew,  Batu,  with  an 
immense  army  to  Russia.  All  Russian  armies  were  defeated.  The 
Mongols,  like  a  raging  torrent,  advanced  unchecked,  devastated 
the  land  with  sword  and  fire,  and  destroyed  Moscow  and  Kief. 
The  Russians  fled  from  them  as  they  would  from  grim  beasts  of 
prey.  Four  divisions  of  the  barbarians  now  invaded  Poland,  Silesia 
and  Hungary.  The  Hungarians  imprudently  ventured  to  fight  them 
in  a  heath,  where  they  were  surrounded  from  all  sides  and  slaught- 
ered like  sheep.  The  Mongolian  mothers  gave  to  their  children  the 
cudgels  with  which  the  captive  children  of  the  Hungarians  were 
slain.  The  enemies  gave  heed  neither-  to  the  embassy  nor  to  the 
public  prayers  of  the  pope.  The  duke  of  Austria  and  the  German 
knights  ofiered  them  some  resistance.  In  the  battle  at  Liegnitz 
(1241  A.  D.),  the  Mongols,  in  fact,  obtained  the  victory,  but  their 
loss  was  so  great  that  they  had  to  abandon  their  purpose  of  going 
to  Germany.  France,  England,  Italy  and  Germany  were  on  the 
point  of  arming  in  the  common  defense  of  Christendom,  when  Batu 
and  500,000  warriors,  who  still  accompanied  him,  were  recalled  to 
Asia  by  the  death  of  their  sovereign  (1245  A.  D.)  His  realm  was 
the  largest  which  at  any  time  existed ;  it  reached  from  the  peninsula 
of  Corea  to  the  Oder  and  the  Adriatic  Sea.     The  Mongols  also  put 

How  long  did  its  subjection  last?  Who  delivered  it?  What  of  Genghis 
Khan  ?  Give  proofs  of  his  cruelty.  What  of  his  sons ;  especially  of  Octai  ? 
What  countries  did  they  invade  ?  How  did  they  deal  with  the  Russians  ?  Who 
offered  them  some  resistance  ?  What  battle  did  they  gain  ?  Why  did  they  re- 
treat from  Europe  ?     How  far  did  their  dominion  extend  ? 


128 

an  end  to  the  caliphate,  and  destroyed  Bagdad.  It  is  reported  that 
the  slaughter  in  this  city  continued  forty  days,  and  that  800,000 
inhabitants  lost  their  lives.  At  last  they  also  completed  the  con- 
quest of  China  (1280  A.  D.)  But  this  empire  again  became  inde- 
pendent from  their  dominion  (1368  A.  D.),  and  finally  the  Chinese 
conquered  even  their  own  country. 

In  the  next  period,  Tamerlane  (Timur-lenk,  ''lame  Timur,")  a 
remote  descendant  of  Genghis  Khan,  subdued  Siberia,  Russia,  India 
and  other  countries,  maintained  his  cruel  sway  during  thirty-four 
years,  and  threw  Asia  back  into  the  benighted  condition  of  barbar- 
ity. The  capital  of  his  dominions  was  Samarcand,  in  the  Tartary 
(about  1370  A.  D.) 

3.   THE  ORUSADES-1096-1300  A.  D. 


?  59.     First  Crusade.     Godfrey  of   Bouillon.     Capture 
of    Jerusalem. 

Since  the  time  of  Emperor  Constantine,  many  Christians  made 
pilgrimages  to  the  grave  of  Jesus,  and  to  the  graves  and  monu- 
ments of  the  apostles  and  other  saints,  imagining  that,  on  account 
of  the  great  hardships  they  had  to  suffer  during  the  long  journey, 
as  well  as  by  the  merits  of  those  saints,  they  could  more  easily 
obtain  the  grant  of  their  prayers,  and  especially  the  pardon  of  their 
sins.  As  long  as  Palestine  was  a  dominion  of  the  Arabs,  the  pil- 
grims there  could  perform  the  acts  of  their  devotion  unmolested, 
but  when  the  Seljooks  (a  Turkish  tribe),  was  in  possession  of  that 
country,  they  were  often  robbed,  ill-treated,  and  even  killed.  These 
persecutions  first  suggested  to  the  mind  of  Gregory  VII.  the  idea  of 
conquering  Palestine,  and  he  would  have  executed  the  project  had 
he  lived  long  enough.  But  this  work  was  reserved  for  Urban  II. 
He  found  an .  excellent  tool  for  this  purpose  in  Peter  of  Amiens. 
This  fanatic  hermit,  who  had  long  lived  in  Palestine,  delivered  to 
the  pope  a  letter  from  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  in  which  the  dis- 
tress of  the  Christians  was  vividly  presented,  and  the  Occident 
implored  for  help.  Bare-footed,  riding  an  ass,  and  with  a  crucifix 
in  his  hand,  he  passed  through  Italy,  France  and  Germany,  sum- 
monmg  the  Christians,  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  who,  as  he  asserted. 

What  of  the  caliphate  ?  How  did  the  inhabitants  of  Bagdad  fare  ?  What  of 
Tamerlane  ?  §  59.  Where,  since  Constantine  I.,  would  the  Christian  pilgrims 
travel  ?  Why  ?  By  which  Mohammedan  tribe  were  they  molested  ?  Which 
pope  wanted  to  conquer  Palestine  ? 


129 

had  appeared  to  him  in  the  vestibule  of  the  temple,  to  deliver  the 
holy  countries  from  the  infidels.  The  pope  himself,  in  the  councils 
at  Piacenza  and  Clermont,  most  impressively  discussed  the  merit  of 
helping  the  Oriental  Christians.  It  was  resolved  to  make  war  upon 
the  enemies  of  their  creed,  the  cry  being:  "  God  wills  it!  "  The 
assembled  crowds  fastened  a  red  cross  on  their  shoulders,  through 
which  they  got  the  name  "  Crusaders." 

First,  Peter  the  Hermit  and  Walter  the  Penniless,  a  poor  knight, 
started  with  several  hundred  thousands,  and  murdering  and  pillag- 
ing, passed  through  Germany,  where  they  especially  killed  the  Jews, 
and  moved  through  Hungary  to  Greece.  The  most  of  them  were 
dispatched  during  their  march  by  the  inhabitants  of  these  countries, 
and  the  rest  quickly  shipped  by  the  Greek  emperor  to  Asia  Minor, 
where  they  also  perished  miserably.  Only  Peter  saved  himself  with 
a  small  troop,  and  fled  back  to  Constantinople. 

Then  the  well-organized  main  army,  numbering  600,000  men, 
began  its  march,  led  by  the  vaHant  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  They 
reached  Asia  safely,  but  here  want,  danger  and  combat  also  began 
for  them.  The  crusaders  were  in  an  unknown  country,  and  had  to 
deal  with  warlike,  courageous  enemies ;  nay,  the  Greeks  themselves, 
by  whom  they  were  hated,  because  confessors  of  popery,  became 
treacherous,  often  leading  them  astray  on  purpose.  The  siege  of 
the  towns  was  protracted ;  hunger  and  disease  destroyed  thousands. 
Thus  it  happened  that  the  crusaders  did  not  arrive  in  Syria  for  two 
years.  Here  they  besieged  Antioch  for  nine  months.  Famine  was 
raging;  many,  among  them  Peter  himself,  took  flight;  but  the  latter 
was  overtaken  and  brought  back  to  the  camp. 

Finally  the  army  reached  Jerusalem,  but  it  had  dwindled  down 
to  60,000  men.  There  it  had  to  struggle  again  with  hunger;  be- 
sides, water  was  very  scarce,  for  the  enemies  had  destroyed  all  foun- 
tains far  and  near.  Moreover,  the  country  being  destitute  of 
woods,  blockading  machines  were  wanting,  and  the  Seldjooks  de- 
fended the  city  with  the  courage  of  despair.  Nevertheless,  after 
five   weeks,  it  was  taken  by  treachery  (14th  of  July,  1099  A.  D.) 

Which  hermit  promoted  his  design  ?  Report  the  doings  of  the  latter.  What 
was  resolved  upon  at  the  councils  of  Piacenza  and  Clermont  ?  Why  were  the 
pilgrims  called  Crusaders  ?  What  leaders  conducted  the  first  expedition  ?  How 
did  it  get  along  ?  How  many  men  were  in  the  second  army  ?  Who  was  the 
leader  ?  Where  did  they  encounter  dangers  ?  What  were  the  dangers  ?  How 
long  did  the  siege  of  Antioch  last  ?  What  of  Peter  ?  How  large  was  the  army 
when  it  reached  Jerusalem  ?     What  difficulties  did  it  experience  there  ? 

(9) 


130 

Godfrey  was  among  the  first  who  scaled  the  walls.  The  victors 
committed  a  horrible  slaughter  of  the  enemies.  *  Crying  again, 
"  God  wills  it !"  they  massacred  every  one  ;  not  even  the  babes  were 
spared.  Down  the  stairs  of  the  mosque  drizzled  the  blood  of  10,000 
butchered  Saracens.  The  Jews  had  to  share  the  same  fate ;  they 
were  driven  into  the  synagogue  and  there  burned.  With  the  fury 
of  cannibals,  the  bellies  of  many  were  cut  open  in  order  to  see 
whether  they  had  not  devoured  any  coin.  In  this  way  40,000, 
according  to  other  reports,  70,000  persons  were  killed  in  one  day. 
The  crusaders  then  passed  through  the  blood-stained  streets  to  the 
sepulchre  of  Jesus,  who  had  enjoined  meekness  upon  his  followers, 
and  entuned  anthems  of  praise  to  his  honor.  They  elected  God- 
frey king  of  Jerusalem,  but  he  refused  to  accept  this  honor  in  a 
place  where  the  founder  of  his  religion  had  walked  in  humility;  he 
called  himself  modestly  the  protector  of  the  holy  sepulchre. 

§  60.    The  Other  Crusades.     Emir  Saladin.     Latin 
Empire. 

The  war  against  the  Mohammedans  was  continued.  Several 
important  crusades  were  yet  waged  against  them.  Emperor  Conrad 
III.  and  Louis  VII.,  king  of  France,  were  the  leaders  in  the  sec- 
ond. Saint  Bernard  had  incited  them  to  undertake  it,  predicting 
a  glorious  success;  but  of  200,000  crusaders  almost  all  perished. 
Bernard  was  smart  enough  to  attribute  the  failure  of  their  enterprise 
to  the  sins  of  the  crusaders. — The  third  crusade  was  caused  by 
Rainold,  a  knight  of  Antioch,  in  this  way :  A  Mohammedan  cara- 
van went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca;  with  it  was  also  the  mother  of 
the  celebrated  Saladin,  Emir  of  Egypt,  who  ruled  this  country,  and 
had  also  conquered  Tripolis,  Tunis  and  Syria.  Rainold  surprised 
the  pilgrims,  plundered  them  and  killed  the  companions  of  Saladin's 
mother.  The  emir  demanded  satisfaction  for  that  hostile  deed  from 
Guido,  king  of  Jerusalem ;  as  it  was  refused,  he  waged  war  against  him, 
totally  defeated  his  army  at  Tiberias  (1187  A.  D.),  and  took  him 
prisoner,  together  with  many  other  noblemen.  But  he  generously 
released  the  king  from  captivity,  when  he  had  promised  by  oath  not 
to  take  up  arms  against  him ;  only  Rainold  received  the  death-blow. 

How  did  the  victors  of  the  city  act  ?     How  many  captives  did  they  kill  ? 
Give  particulars  of  the  massacre.     Who  was  elected  king  of  Jerusalem  ?     Who 
undertook  the  second  crusade  ?     Was  it  a  success  ?     What   of    St.    Bernard  ?  . 
What  caused  the  third  crusade  ?  What  did  Saladin  demand  from  Guido  ?    Where 
did  he  defeat  him  ? 


131 

Jerusalem  was  besieged  and  surrendered ;  Saladin  did  not  stain  his 
victory  by  wanton  cruelty.  Nobody  was  killed;  the  captives  were 
permitted,  for  a  ransom,  to  go  free  with  theif  property ;  and  those 
who  were  unable  to  raise  it  were  dismissed  without  paying.  Finally, 
he  distributed  almost  the  whole  sum  of  money  thus  collected  by 
ransom  among  those  who  had  no  money  to  pay  their  fare. 

Saladin's  generosity  did  not  touch  the  feeHngs  of  the  Christian 
sovereigns ;  the  most  powerful  of  them  made  preparations  for  a  new 
campaign.  First,  Emperor  Frederic  I.  set  out  with  100,000  war- 
riors (1189  A.  D.)  He  vanquished  the  Seldjooks  at  Iconium,  in  Asia 
Minor,  in  a  bloody  battle,  but  as  he  was  crossing  the  river  Saleph 
on  horseback,  he  was  drowned.  His  army,  too,  perished  miserably 
by  disease. 

One  year  later,  Richard  the  Lion-hearted  (Coeur-de-Lion),  king 
of  England,  Philip  August^  king  of  France,  and  Leopold,  duke  of 
Austria,  set  out  on  their  march.  But  national  hatred  disunited 
them.  Their  sole  joint  exploit  was  the  conquest  of  Acre  (Ptolemais), 
in  Syria.  Richard  ordered  Leopold's  flag  to  be  torn  from  the 
house  he  had  taken  possession  of,  and  to  be  trampled  in  the 
mire.  Provoked  by  this  insolence,  Leopold  and  PhiHp  left  the 
army  of  the  crusaders  and  returned  home.  The  besieged  had 
capitulated  by  promising  a  ransom.  When  Saladin  did  not  pay  it 
at  the  appointed  time,  Richard  commanded  the  prisoners  to  be 
cruelly  slaughtered.  Neither  was  he  able  to  conquer  Jerusalem ; 
he  obtained  for  the  Christians  only  the  right  to  visit  the  city  unop- 
posed. Then  he,  too,  started  on  his  return.  Owing  to  his  great 
personal  valor,  he  was  given  the  surname,  "  Lion-hearted."  On 
his  return,  he  was  unfortunate  enough  to  be  taken  prisoner  by  Duke 
Leopold,  who  delivered  him  to  the  emperor.  He  was  compelled  to 
suffer  a  long  time  in  a  dungeon,  and  to  redeem  his  liberty  with  an 
enormous  sum  of  money. 

Soon  after  Richard's  departure,  the  noble-minded  Saladin  died 
(1193    A.    D.)     Before  his   death   he  distributed  alms  among  the 

How  did  he  act  concerning  the  prisoners  ?  What  city  did  he  capture  ? 
How  did  he  treat  the  captives  ?  How  did  he  dispose  of  the  ransom  collected  ? 
Did  his  generosity  touch  the  Christian  sovereigns  ?  Who  first  took  up  arms 
against  him  ?  What  was  his  fate  ?  Who  followed  then  ?  Why  did  the  sover- 
eigns not  succeed  ?  What  insult  did  Richard  inflict  on  Leopold  of  Austria  ? 
How  did  he  treat  Saladin's  st)ldiers  who  had  capitulated  ?  What  right  did  he 
obtain  for  the  pilgrims  ?  Why  was  he  called  "  Lion-hearted  ?  "  What  misfort- 
une befell  him  on  his  return  ?     What  noble  act  was  the  last  one  of  Saladin  ? 


132 

Christians  and  the  Musselmans,  without  any  distinction  as  to  their 
rehgion.  He  was  so  poor  v/hen  he  died  that  the  expenses  of  his 
funeral  had  to  be  paid,  with  a  borrowed  sum  of  money. 

The  next  important  crusade  was  undertaken  by  Emperor  Fred- 
eric II.  He  had  vowed  it  when  he  was  crowned.  His  troops,  to 
this  end,  were  assembled  in  Italy,  but  most  of  them  succumbed 
to  an  epidemic  disease,  which  also  attacked  the  emperor,  and  he 
was  therefore  obliged  to  defer  the  promised  crusade.  However,  he 
was  excommunicated  by  Gregory  IX.,  and  the  anathema  was  re- 
peated when  he  really  set  out  after  one  year  (1228  A.  D.),  without 
having  been  absolved  from  it.  Scarcely  had  he  landed  in  Syria 
when  the  priests  got  ashore  and  here  also  published  the  papal  curse. 
Dissensions  arose  thereby  which  divided  the  army.  Frederic  there- 
fore concluded  a  truce  with  Sultan  Kamel  (1229  A.  D.),  by  virtue 
of  which  the  latter  ceded  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  Nazareth,  and 
the  tract  which  leads  to  these  towns  from  the  sea.  Now  the  em- 
peror entered  Jerusalem  joyfully,  and  himself  put  the  crown  upon 
his  head,  as  no  priest  dared  to  do  it  for  him.  Immediately  the 
patriarch  here  also  promulgated  the  interdict.  Frederic  had  the 
priests,  who  sided  with  the  patriarch,  whipped  and  driven  away. 
Then  he  returned  to  Europe,  in  order  to  chastise  the  pope  also 
(see  §  56).     Fifteen  years  after  this  Jerusalem  was  again  lost. 

Louis  IX.,  king  of  France,  on  account  of  his  piety  surnamed  the 
Saint,  still  endeavored  to  support  the  tottering  cause  of  the  Chris- 
tians. He,  together  with  the  foremost  noblemen  of  France,  and 
many  thousand  soldiers,  marched  to  Egypt.  First  he  was  favored 
by  fortune.  He  conquered  the  fortified  town  of  Damiette,  but  as 
he  advanced  further,  he  was  so  hemmed  in  by  the  many  canals  and 
branches  of  the  Nile  that  he  was  obliged  to  surrender  his  whole 
army  (1248  A.  D.),  to  give  up  Damiette  and  to  pay  a  ransom  of  800,- 
000  pieces  in  gold  for  the  prisoners.  He  returned  home,  and  found 
that  during  his  absence  his  dominion  had  been  laid  waste  by  internal 
enemies.  Notwithstanding  the  unfortunate  termination  of  his  cru- 
sade, he  undertook  a  second  one  against  Tunis   (1270  A.  D.),  in 

Was  he  rich  when  he  died  ?  Why  did  Frederic  II.  postpone  the  crusade  he 
had  vowed  ?  How  did  the  pope  act  against  him  ?  Why  did  he  conclude  a  truce 
with  the  Sultan  ?  On  what  conditions  ?  Who  promulgated  the  interdict  against 
him  in  Jerusalem  ?  How  did  he  punish  the  priests  ?  Who  undertook  the  next 
crusade  ?  Who  marched  with  him  ?  What  fortress  did  he  capture  ?  What  was 
the  final  event  of  the  campaign?  Against  what  city  did  he  direct  his  second 
crusade  ?     Did   he  succeed  ? 


133 

order  to  fight  the  Saracens  from  that  side;  but  he  lost  his  life  and 
his  army  by  pestilence.  Twenty  years  later,  also  Ptolemais  (Acre), 
the  only  place  the  Christians  yet  possessed  in  the  Orient,  was  torn 
from  their  dominion. 

Between  these  greater  crusades  many  smaller  ones  happened. 
Even  women  and  children  undertook  several  of  them.  One  was 
ventured  by  30,000  boys  (12 13  A.  D.)  Priests  were  their  leaders. 
They  had  flattered  the  children  by  the  illusion  that  God  would  work 
a  miracle,  in  order  to  help  them  over  the  Mediterranean  Sea;  that 
he  would  separate  its  waters,  and  lead  them  with  dry  feet  through  it, 
as  he  once  had  led  the  Israelites  through  the  Red  Sea.  Most  of  the 
children  perished  miserably  during  the  march ;  the  rest  were  sold  in 
Egypt  into  bondage. 

During  a  certain  crusade,  it  also  happened  that  French  crusaders 
founded  the  so-called  new  Latin  empire.  The  Grecian  emperor 
called  on  them  for  aid  against  his  enemies;  they  came  and  took 
Constantinople  together  with  the  country  (1204  A.  D.),  but  retained 
the  conquest,  and  imposed  upon  the  inhabitants  the  twofold  yoke 
of  vassalage  and  popery.  Michael  Falceoiogus,  Grecian  emperor  of 
Nicsea,  delivered  them  again  from  the  tyranny  of  the  foreigners 
(1261  A.  D.) 

Europe  lost  about  seven  millions  of  men  by  the  crusades, 
and  Palestine  was  nevertheless  gone.  Most  of  the  Christians 
engaged  in  the  crusades  through  fanaticism,  excited  by  the  priests, 
especially  by  the  popes.  Many  others  were  allured  by  other  vile 
motives,  as  the  popes  promised  to  the  crusaders  the  release  of  their 
debts,  and  the  indulgence  of  all,  even  the  vilest  sins  and  crimes. 
However,  these  wars  also  had  good  effects.  Through  them  the 
Arabian  culture  was  diffused  throughout  Europe,  the  knowledge  of 
nations  and  countries  augmented,  the  power  of  the  hierarchy 
shaken,  the  chain  of  feudalism  broken  in  many  places,  and  the  sense 
of  freedom  awakened.  Many  serfs  received  liberty,  as  their  lords 
took  up  the  cross,  either  alone  or  accompanied  by  them.  Com- 
merce was  especially  advanced  by  the  crusades.     Entire  fleets  sailed 

When  was  the  last  place  in  the  Orient  lost  ?  What  of  the  crusade  of  children  ? 
How  were  they  deluded  by  the  priests  ?  What  fate  did  they  experience  ?  Who 
founded  the  Latin  empire  ?  In  what  manner  ?  Who  abolished  it  ?  How  many 
inhabitants  did  Europe  lose  by  the  crusades  ?  For  what  reasons  mainly  were 
they  undertaken  ?  What  good  effects  did  they  produce  ?  What  culture  was  dif- 
fused ?  What  power  shaken  ?  What  service  broken  ?  How  was  commerce  ad- 
vanced ? 


134 

from  Venice,  Genoa,  Pisa,  and  other  maritime  towns  of  Italy,  to 
those  distant  countries,  carrying  armies,  arms  and  provisions  there, 
and  on  their  return  brought  the  merchandise  of  Persia  and  Hin- 
dostan  to  Europe.  By  such  commerce  they  acquired  great  riches 
and  power.  Besides,  the  crusades  diminished  the  number  of  the 
noble  families,  because  many  noblemen  incurred  death  through 
them. 


SEOOm  OHAPTEE-HISTOEY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 


§  61.     Constitutions.     Feudal   Government.     Feudal  Ser- 
vitude.    Magna   Charta  of  England. 
Ordeals.     Chivalry. 

In  the  preceding,  but  still  more  so  in  this  and  the  following 
period,  Europe  presents  a  sad  view  of  servitude.  The  Teutonic 
nations  usually  seized  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  conquered  lands 
half  or  more  of  their  landed  property,  and  divided  it  by  lot.  The 
portions  were  called  "  allodia,"  and  were  heritable.  The  sovereigns 
conferred  part  of  the  lands  which  fell  to  them  as  their  share  upon 
their  loyal  vassals.  Such  parts  were  called  "  feods  "  (feuds,  fees, 
fiefs).  In  this  manner  the  feudal  system  and  the  feudal  law  sprung 
up.  The  vassals  were  obliged '  to  perform  either  military  service, 
when  called  upon,  or  contribute  certain  rents  and  payments.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  countries  were  partly  noblemen,  partly  serfs.  To 
the  former  belonged  the  landlords,  the  vassals,  the  high  ministerial 
officers,  and  the  patricians  in  the  cities.  The  rest  (consequently 
the  majority  of  the  people)  were  serfs  (villains). 

The  fate  of  the  bondmen  was  horrible.  They  were  compelled 
to  cultivate  the  estates  of  their  landlords ;  their  earnings,  their  body 
and  life,  their  children,  everything  belonged  to  the  latter.  They 
might  be  killed  by  them  with  impunity.  Their  marriages  were  not 
consecrated.  The  slave  garment  and  the  shaved  head  distinguished 
them  from  the  freeman.  Nobody  was  allowed  to  grant  entrance  to 
the  fugitives. 

England   first  broke   the   fetters   of   the    feudal   system.     The 

§  6i.  Give  the  view  of  the  feudal  system.  Define  the  words  "allodia"  and 
**  feods."  What  were  the  obligations  of  the  vassals  ?  What  classes  of  the  inhab- 
itants belonged  to  the  noblemen?  What  was  the  doom  of  their  majority?  What 
was  the  fate  of  the  bondmen  ?  With  regard  to  their  landlords  ?  To  their  chil- 
dren and  marriages  ?  How  was  their  exterior  appearance  distinguished  ?  What 
country  first  broke  the  fetters  of  this  system  ? 


135 

Magna  Charta,  which  King  John  was  compelled  to  sign  (see  §  57), 
granted  (though  almost  alone  to  the  nobiUty  and  the  clergy)  the 
most  precious  rights.  By  virtue  of  that  document  no  freeman 
was  allowed  to  be  taken  prisoner  without  a  lawful  decree.  In 
trials,  the  sentence  must  be  pronounced  by  particular  judges,  inde- 
pendent from  the  king.  The  latter  could  not  impose  taxes  without 
the  permission  of  the  parliament,  etc.  As  John  infringed  the  char- 
ter, guardians  were  appointed  to  watch  over  its-  proper  execution, 
and  it  was  decreed  that  it  should  be  confirmed  by  oath  by  every 
king  at  his  accession,  and  promulgated  to  the  people  twice  every 
year.  Though  it  is  true  that  still  several  kings  dared  to  infringe  the 
charter,  yet  this  only  conduced  to  enlarge  liberty.  In  this  manner 
Edward  I.  had  to  extend  the  right  to  allow  taxes  to  the  knights  and 
citizens  of  towns.  Since  his  time,  the  delegates  of  the  counties  and 
towns  also  used  to  be  called  to  the  sessions  of  the  parliament.  Thus, 
by  degrees,  the  lower  house  was  created,  in  which  the  commons 
first  were  truly  represented. 

In  Italy,  the  constitutions  of  the  Lombard  cities,  after  the  con- 
tests against  Frederick  I.  and  II.,  secured  freedom  to  its  subjects  ; 
Venice,  first  a  democracy,  had  in  later  time  a  doge. (691  A.  D.), 
then  an  aristocratic  government  (1172  A.  D.)  the  offices  of  which 
finally  became  hereditary  (1297  A.  D.) 

In  this  and  the  next  period  the  club-law  ruled  almost  every- 
where in  Europe.  The  noblemen  were  frequently  highway  robbers, 
and  their  castles  dens  of  thieves,  where  they  would  feast  and 
carouse.  The  laws  were  rude  and  inefficacious.  The  ordeals  (judg- 
ments of  God),  such  as  duels,  the  ordeal  of  boiling  water,  the  fire- 
and- water  ordeal,  etc.,  settled  all  questions  of  right  or  wrong,  the  de- 
fendant being  obliged  to  take  something  out  of  a  boiling  kettle,  or 
carry  a  red-hot  piece  of  iron  in  his  hands  for  some  distance,  or  he 
was  flung  into  a  river  or  pond ;  if  he  sank,  he  was  acquitted,  etc.; 
even  the  judges  had  to  submit  to  duels.  Religious  disputes  were 
also  decided  by  arms. 

In  the  midst  of  such  depravity,  chivalry  was  for  a  long  time  a 
blessing.     It  was   designed  to  afford  help  to  the  distressed,  espe- 

What  rights  were  granted  by  the  Magna  Charta  to  the  nobihty  and  clergy  ? 
What  was  decreed  when  John  infringed  it  ?  What  was  Edward  I.  obliged  to 
grant  to  the  knights  and  citizens  ?  What  constitutions  in  Italy  were  liberal  ? 
What  of  the  government  of  Venice  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  club  law  ;  of  the 
ordeals  of  boiling  water  ;  of  fire  and  water  ordeals.  For  what  end  was  chivalry 
designed  ? 


136 

cially  to  women,  orphans  and  pilgrims.  The  duties  attached 
to  the  squireship  prepared  for  it;  tournaments,  in  which  noble- 
minded  ladies  distributed  the  meed  of  praise,  invigorated  it.  In  an 
age  of  darkness  and  degradation,  chivalry  developed  the  character 
of  woman,  and  causing  her  virtues  to  be  appreciated  and  honored, 
made  her  the  equal  companion  of  man,  and  the  object  of  his  devotion. 
The  religious  orders  of  knighthood,  viz.,  the  Order  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  the  Order  of  the  Temple,  and  the  Teutonic 
knights,  were  monastic  orders,  and  obliged  their  members,  especially, 
to  fight  against  the  Saracens,  to  aid  poor  pilgrims,  and  to  nurse  the 
sick.  They  all  originated  in  Jerusalem.  The  Knights  of  St.  John 
were  in  later  time  called  Knights  of  Rhodes  and  Malta,  because, 
after  the  loss  of  Palestine,  they  had  their  seat  at  Rhodes  and 
because  this  island  also  was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  at  'Malta. 

g  62.     Church.    Anathema.    Interdict.    Inquisitional  Tri- 
bunal.    Canon  Law.    Celibacy.     Popes. 
Gregory  VII.     Innocent   III. 

In  Europe,  it  is  true,  the  Slavonians,  Hungarians  and  Russians, 
and  in  Asia  the  Tartarian  tribes  were  converted  to  Christianity,  but 
its  doctrine  and  spirit  remained  unknown  to  them,  for  they  were  as 
yet  in  the  lowest  degrees  of  civilization.  They  were  driven  to  the 
rivers  and  aspersed  with  water.  Then  they  were  baptized  and 
called  Christians.  Their  princes,  who  had  accepted  the  Christian 
faith  before  them,  commanded  them  to  follow  their  example,  and 
they  thoughtlessly  obeyed. 

The  Roman  Church  separated  from  the  Grecian. — In  the  Occi- 
dental Church  the  Latin  language  was  introduced.  The  chaffering 
in  relics  and  indulgences,  and  the  number  of  church  festivals  in- 
creased. The  infidels  and  heretics,  as  the  non-conformists  were 
called,  were  treated  most  cruelly.  The  Jews,  too,  were  often  very 
severely  persecuted. 

The  most  dreadful  weapons  of  the  clergy  were  the  aftathe?na, 

What  degree  prepared  for  it  ?  Who,  in  the  tournaments,  distributed  the 
prizes  ?  What  influence  did  chivalry  exert  on  the  development  of  womanhood  ? 
What  were  the  religious  Orders  of  Knighthood  ?  What  were  the  obligations  of 
their  members  ?  Where  did  they  originate  ?  What  were  the  Knights  of  St.  John 
called  in  later  times  ?  ^  62.  What  kind  of  Christianity  did  the  newly  converted 
nations  in  Europe  and  Asia  adopt  ?  What  two  churches  separated  ?  What  lan- 
guage was  introduced  in  the  church  ?  What  of  relics,  indulgences  and  holydays  ? 
How  were  infidels,  heretics  and  Jews  treated  ?  Which  were  the  most  dreadful 
weapons  of  the  clergy  ? 


137 

the  interdict  and  the  inquisitiofial  tribunal.  The  anathema  deprived 
a  man  of  the  enjoyment  of  all  ecclesiastical,  civil  and  natural  rights. 
He  was  thereby  unfitted  to  make  contracts.  His  children  could 
dispense  with  their  duty  of  respect  and  obedience.  Even  his  Ufe 
was  at  the  mercy  of  every  murderer. 

By  the  interdict  the  divine  service  was  suspended  in  entire  coun- 
tries. Then  no  church  bell  sounded ;  the  altars  were  unclothed, 
and  even  the  church  doors  locked,  the  marriages  contracted  on  the 
graves,  and  all  public  amusements  interdicted,  even  greetings  forbid- 
den. These  punishments  usually  were  inflicted  on  princes  who 
would  not  comply  with  the  caprices  and  ambitious  designs  of  the 
bishops  and  popes. 

The  inquisitiofial  tribunal,  that  infamous  pillory  of  popery,  was 
instituted  by  Gregory  IX.  against  the  Albigenses  (1229  A.  D.)  (see 
§  57),  and  soon  after  directed  against  all  heretics.  He  committed  it  to 
the  Order  of  the  Dominicans.  The  object  of  this  tribunal  was  not 
only  to  root  out  heresies,  but  also  pretended  sorceries,  and  even 
philosophical,  political  and  mathematical  doctrines.  Thus  Galileo 
was  put  into  its  dungeon,  because  he  had  taught  the  theorem  that 
the  earth  revolves  around  the  sun. 

The  courts  of  the  tribunal  were  held  in  horrid  castles,  where  the 
prisoners  were  tortured  in  subterranean  chambers,  in  order  to  ex- 
tort from  them  the  confessions  which  they  refused  to  make  sponta- 
neously. At  the  first  degree  of  torture  the  tormentors  raised  them 
to  a  certain  height  from  the  ground,  and  then  suddenly  let  them  fall 
again.  At  the  second  degree,  their  mouth  w-as  forcibly  opened,  a 
cloth  put  over  it,  and  through  it  a  great  quantity  of  water  slowly 
poured  into  their  throat,  thereby  causing  in  the  unfortunate  victims 
the  sensation  of  choking.  At  the  third  degree,  their  feet  were  slowly 
roasted  over  a  coal-fire. 

The  penalties  of  the  sentenced  were  confiscation  of  property, 
service  on  the  galleys,  life-long  imprisonment,  and  death.  This  was 
inflicted  by  racks  which  tore  the  joints  apart,  by  wheels  breaking  the 
bones,  by  combustion,  etc.  Many  of  the  rich  were  adjudged  guilty 
simply  for  the  reason  that  their  impeachers  and  judges  were  desirous 

Give  an  account  of  the  anathema  and  interdict.  Who  instituted  the  inquisi- 
tional tribwial?  Against  what  sect  was  it  first  directed?  To  what  Order  was  it 
committed?  What  were  its  objects?  How  were  its  courts  constructed? 
Which  was  the  first  degree  of  torture  ?  The  second  ?  The  third  ?  What  pen- 
alties were  inflicted  on  the  sentenced  ?     In  what  manner  were  they  put  to  death  ? 


138 

of  obtaining  their  treasures.  Combustion  in  Spain  was  called  auto 
da  fe  (judicial  decree  of  faith.)  On  the  way  to  the  place  of  exe- 
cution the  condemned  wore  the  Sanbenito,  a  peculiar  dress,  on  which 
they  were  represented  as  burning  in  the  flames,  and  surrounded  by 
devils ;  a  high  cap,  painted  all  over  with  demons ;  they  also  had  a 
rope  around  the  neck  and  carried  a  burning  candle  in  the  hand. 
In  this  attire  they  were  paraded  in  the  streets,  and  had  to  pass  by  a 
stage  on  which  the  king  and  his  court-officers  and  court-ladies  were 
seated.  The  sentenced  victims  were  finally  brought  to  the  place  of 
execution,  where  funeral  piles  were  raised.  There  they  were  for  the 
last  time  summoned  to  forswear  their  faith,  and  if  they  persevered 
in  it,  put  upon  the  wood-piles.  At  a  given  signal  these  were  kin- 
dled, and  the  unhappy  victims  slowly  burned  to  death.  Their  tor- 
ments frequently  lasted  many  hours ;  sometimes  their  skin  burst,  and 
through  the  scalds  the  intestines  protruded.  If  the  executed  were 
authors,  their  writings  were  burned  at  the  same  time. 

This  infernal  tribunal  was  established  in  most  of  the  countries 
of  Europe,  and  even  in  Asia  and  America.  It  especially  flourished 
in  Spain  and  Portugal,  in  France  and  Italy.  In  America  many 
Indians  were  burned,  because  they  would  not  be  converted  to 
Christianity.  No  rank,  no  sex,  no  age  was  exempt  from  the  power 
of  the  tribunal ;  even  kings  and  bishops  were  subject  to  it. 

Most  of  the  victims  of  the  Inquisition  were  sacrificed  in  the 
Spanish  dominions  during  the  governments  of  Ferdinand  the  Cath- 
olic and  of  Philip  II.  Isabella,  Ferdinand's  wife,  had  promised  to 
her  confessor  to  exterminate  all  heretics,  should  the  royal  crown  fall 
to  her  share.  She  became  queen.  Now  all  the  Jews  and  Moors, 
who  at  that  time  formed  the  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  in 
Spain,  had  to  consent  to  be  baptized  or  to  leave  the  country ;  but  as 
many  of  them  who  submitted  to  baptism  secretly  remained  attached 
to  their  former  creed,  she  induced  her  husband  to  establish  the 
Inquisitional  Tribunal.  In  this  country  10,000  men  were  burned 
alive  in  the  course  of  eighteen  years.  Even  more  dreadful  was 
the  rage  of  Philip  II.,  who  persecuted  the  Protestants  in  the  Nether- 

Describe  the  ceremonies  of  combustion.  What  was  the  Sanbenito  ?  Where 
were  they  paraded  ?  In  whose  presence  were  they  burned  ?  What  of  the 
funeral  piles  ?  How  long  did  their  torments  last  ?  What  were  the  effects  caused 
by  the  flames  ?  In  what  countries  was  the  tribunal  established  ?  Were  any 
persons  exempt  from  its  power  ?  What  two  kings  caused  the  most  combus- 
tions ?  What  of  the  Jews  and  Moors  in  Spain  ?  How  many  persons  were 
burned  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  ? 


189 

lands  (see  §  79).  The  last  case  of  combustion  happened  in  1782,  in 
Seville.  It  has  been  computed  that  the  number  of  all  individuals 
who  have  been  burned  since  the  institution  of  the  Inquisition,  in 
different  countries  of  the  earth,  amounts  to  nine  millions. 

The  clergy,  during  this  period,  was  the  most  powerful  caste  in 
the  State ;  but  its  members  indulged  in  ambition,  luxury  and  indo- 
lence. Even  the  bishops  carried  on  feuds,  or  were  used  t©  hunting 
and  military  exercises.  Frequently  priests,  returning  from  hunting, 
went  immediately  to  church,  accompanied  by  their  hounds,  in 
order  to  say  mass.  The  monks  became  wild  and  savage;  many 
clergymen  did  not  even  know  how  to  read.  The  popes  in  particu- 
lar were  greedy  and  desirous  of  enlarging  their  dominions,  ambi- 
tious, cruel  and  perfidious.  They  shunned  no  fraud,  if  it  served  to 
increase  their  authority;  e.  g.,  they  frequently  appealed  to  the 
Cafwn  Law,  a  collection  partly  of  fictitious  or  adulterated  laws  of 
the  oldest  synods  and  Roman  bishops,  and  partly  of  later  papal 
edicts.  They  introduced  it  as  the  statute-book  of  the  church.  By 
it  they  were  declared  to  be  the  sovereigns  of  the  church,  the  bish- 
ops being  only  their  representatives. 

With  Gregory  VII.  (1073-1085  A.  D.),  the  universal  dominion 
of  the  popes  begins.  He  demanded  of  the  bishops  an  oath,  similar 
to  that  of  allegiance,  and  declared  most  countries  to  be  fiefs  of  the 
Roman  See.  He  asserted  that  the  papal  power  resembles  the  sun ; 
the  royal,  the  moon;  as  the  moon  gets  her  light  from  the  sun, 
in  the  same  manner  emperors  and  kings  do  not  exist,  but  by  per- 
mission of  the  pope ;  consequently  those  are  obliged  to  obey  him. 
He  deprived  the  sovereigns  of  the  right  to  nominate  the  prelates  of 
the  church,  and  to  invest  them  with  tracts  of  land,  and  usurped  it 
for  himself.  Moreover,  he  instituted  celibacy  (the  unmarried  state  of 
life)  of  priests,  forbidding  them  to  contract  matrimony,  and  finally 
separating  those  who  had  married  from  their  wives  and  children.  As 
in  the  former  ages  of  the  church  priests  were  not  forbidden  to 
marry,  and  even  in  Gregory's  age  many  of  them  had  wives,  they 
opposed   the  mtroduction  of  celibacy,  causing  even  revolts  against 

How  many  (as  it  is  reported)  in  all  countries  of  the  earth  ?  Which  was  the 
most  powerful  caste  ?  In  what  exercises  would  even  bishops  indulge  ?  What 
of  the  morals  of  the  clergy  and  monks  ?  How  did  the  popes  increase  their 
authority  ?  What  were  the  contents  of  the  canon  law  ?  With  what  pope  does 
the  universal  dominion  of  the  popes  begin?  What  comparison  did  Gregory 
draw  between  his  and  the  royal  power?  What  did  he  institute  ?  How  did  he 
use  married  priests  ? 


140 

the  pope;  however,  he  carried  his  prohibition  through  by  dint  of 
force. 

Next  to  Gregory,  Innocent  III.  (1198-1216  A.  D.)  was  the 
most  imperious  and  most  powerful  pope.  During  the  war  which 
Otto  of  Brunswick  waged  against  Philip  of  Suabia,  he  contrived  to 
augment  considerably  the  papal  dominions ;  he  deprived  the  laymen 
of  the  chalice  of  the  Holy  Supper ;  he  censured  them  severely  for 
reading  the  Bible,  introduced  the  auricular  confession  by  law  and 
set  the  interdict  at  work.  Proof  of  his  cruelty  is  the  persecution  of 
the  Albigenses  (see  §  57). 

§  63.    The  Arts  and  Sciences.    Troubadours  and  Minne- 
singers.    Commerce. 

From  the  tenth  to  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  the  density 
of  ignorance  still  increased ;  the  art  of  writing  was  almost  lost.  All 
schools  were  in  the  hands  of  clergymen.  Fmally,  the  universities 
sprung  up,  which  again  diffused  some  enlightenment.  The  majority 
of  their  scholars  were  full  grown  men,  and  often  of  high  rank,  such 
as  archbishops  and  cardinals.  The  most  celebrated  were  the  univer- 
sities of  Bologna  (for  science  of  laws),  of  Salerno  (for  medicine), 
and  of  Paris  and  Oxford  (for  theology  and  philosophy).  Still, 
philosophy  was  the  hand-maid  of  the  church,  obliged  to  agree  with 
her  dogmas,  however  absurd  they  might  be.  The  poesy  of  chivalry 
was  in  a  most  flourishing  condition  during  the  reign  of  the  Hohen- 
stauffen.  Alphonso  X.  of  Castile  caused  astronomical  tables,  which 
are  very  important  for  modern  astronomy,  to  be  constructed  by 
Moorish  and  Jewish  mathematicians,  expending  enormous  sums 
for  this  purpose.  Generally,  he  paid  and  rewarded  scholars  very 
liberally.  Among  the  greatest  scholars  were  Otto  of  Freisingen  and 
Albertus  Magnus.  The  former  understood  all  the  languages  and 
sciences  of  his  age.  He  wrote  a  universal  history  in  which  the 
achievements  of  Frederic  I.  are  related  at  large.  Albertus  excelled 
in  natural  sciences  and  mechanics.  His  writings  fill  not  less  than 
twenty-one  volumes  in  folio. 

What  of  Innocent  III.  ?  What  did  he  introduce?  What  did  he  considerably 
augment  ?  Of  what  did  he  deprive  the  laymen  ?  What  sect  did  he  cruelly  per- 
secute ?  Which  was  the  darkest  time  of  civilization  ?  What  institutes  finally 
diffused  some  enlightenment?  Who  attended  the  universities?  For  what 
science  was  that  of  Bologna  renowned  ?  Palermo  ?  Paris  and  Oxford  ?  How 
did  Alfonso  of  Castile  promote  astronomy  ?  What  of  Otto  of  Freisingen  and 
Albertus  Magnus  ? 


141 

The  troubadours  in  France,  and  the  epic  poets  and  minnesingers 
in  southern  Germany,  were  efficacious  in  creating  a  love  for  the 
national  poesy  and  the  cultivation  of  language.  The  songs  of  the 
troubadours  were  frequendy  set  to  music.  Every  well-bred  man,  even 
sovereigns,  attempted  to  write  such  poetry.  Emulative  singing, 
at  which  ladies  distributed  the  prize,  took  place.  The  art  of  heroic 
poesy  and  of  the  minnesingers  was  principally  cultivated  in  Suabia, 
Franconia,  Austria  and  Switzerland. 

The  oldest  and  grandest  epical  poem  of*  the  German  language  is 
"  der  Nibelunge  noth  "  (the  distress  of  the  Nibelunge.)  It  originally 
consisted  of  several  separate  national  songs,  which,  at  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century,  '  were  connected  into  a  whole.  More 
recent  epic  poets  are :  Wolfram  von  Eshenbach,  Hartmann  von 
der  Au,  etc.  The  best  minnelays  were  composed  by  Walter  von 
der  Vogelweide.  All  poets  were  also  singers.  They  sung  with  harp 
accompaniment,  the  harp  being  the  favorite  instrument  of  the  mid- 
dle ages.  Most  of  them  belonged  to  the  lower  nobihty.  They 
wandered  from  court  to  court,  arid  were  present  at  coronation  days, 
at  assemblies  of  princes,  and  at  wedding  feasts.  The  presents  they 
received  consisted  of  money  and  new  garments.  The  emperors  of 
Hohenstauf,  the  landgraves  of  Thuringia,  and  the  dukes  of  Austria 
were  most  liberal  to  them. 

Concerning  industry  and  commerce,  they  could  not  prosper  in 
the  German  countries,  by  reason  of  their  wretched  political  condi- 
tion. To  the  lord  of  the  coast  the  stranded  mariner  was  forfeited 
with  all  his  property ;  even  the  goods  of  the  wagon  which  broke  in 
the  public  highway  belonged,  in  some  places,  to  the  ruler  of  the 
country.  For  some  time  the  Normans,  principally,  carried  on  com- 
merce. The  Italian  cities,  especially  since  the  crusades,  did  a  lively 
trade,  which  extended  as  far  as  Siberia,  India  and  China.  They 
transported  silk  stuffs,  which  they  wove  from  home-spun  silk,  and 
sugar,  to  Southern  and  Western  Europe.  They  carried  on  the  prin- 
cipal trade  for  some  time  even  in  Central  Europe,  and  only  the 
Jews  emulated  with  them  here.     To  the  Italian  cities,  not  to  the 

What  of  the  troubadours  and  minnesingers  in  France  and  Germany?  Which 
is  the  oldest  and  grandest  German  epopee  ?  Other  epic  poets  ?  Who  composed 
the  best  minnelays  ?  Which  was  the  favorite  musical  instrument  of  the  middle 
ages  ?  What  presents  did  the  poets  receive  ?  What  of  industry  and  commerce  ? 
To  whom  did  the  property  of  stranded  persons  belong  ?  Who  carried  on  com- 
merce in  Northern  Europe  and  Italy  ?  To  what  cities  is  Europe  indebted  for 
liberty  ? 


142 

sovereigns,  therefore,  is  Europe  indebted  for  the  advantages  of  com- 
merce, industry  and  hberty.  In  this  period,  too,  commerce  and 
trades  were  in  a  most  flourishing  condition  among  the  Arabs. 

EXERCISES. 

Biographies. — Frederic  I.  His  conduct — i,  in  Italy  {a)  against  Arnold  of 
Brescia  and  the  cities  (Rome J,  (/^)  against  the  Lombard  cities  and  the  popes  ; 
2,  in  Asia. — Frederic  II.  His  efficacy — i,  in  Germany;  2,  in  Italy,  {a)  against 
the  Lombard  cities,  [b)  against  the  popes  ;  3,  in  Asia. — Gregory  VIL  i.  His 
domineering,  (a)  in  general,  C/5)  especially  in  Germany  (Henry  IV.)  2.  Means 
employed  for  this  purpose. — Innocent  HL  I.  His  imperious  conduct  in  Italy 
and  England.  2.  His  despotism  in  religious  matters,  {a)  generally;  {b)  against 
the  Albigenses.  Give  a  description  of  the  crusade  against  Saladin.  Who  was, 
in  this  period,  the  most  excellent  sovereign  in  Germany?  Of  the  Mohamme- 
dans ?  Which  sovereign  became  most  remarkable  by  his  quarrels  w^ith  the  popes  ? 
Who  were  the  founders  of  new  dynasties  in  France  and  England  ?  What  sov- 
ereigns engaged  in  the  crusades  ?  When  and  how  long  did  Gregoiy  VII.  rule? 
When  and  by  whom  was  the  Inquisitional  Tribunal  established  ?  When  and  by 
whom  was  the  Magna  Charta  granted  ?  When  did  the  contest  of  the  Lombard 
cities  for  liberty  commence,  and  how  many  years  did  it  last  ?  How  many  centu- 
ries passed  during  the  crusades  ?  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Latin  empire 
founded,  and  how  long  did  it  subsist  ? 


SIXTH    PERIOD. 


From  tl^e  End  of  tl^e  Crusades  to  tl^e  Discovery  of  Anqer- 

ica.     Decay  of  tlqe  Imperial  Power,  of  Papacy 

aiqd  Church].     Frorn  1300  to  1492  A.  D. 


riEST  OHAPTER-POLITIOAL  HISTOEY. 


\  64.     Germany.     Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.     War  of  the 
Hussites.     Maximilian  I. 

With  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  in  Switzerland,  proprietor  of 
many  estates,  a  happier  period  again  began  for  Germany  (1273 
A.  D.)  He  declared  it  to  be  his  calling  to  "  protect  peace  and 
right,  the  most  precious  of  all  heavenly  gifts ;  "  and  he  answered 

What  nation,  in  Asia,  also  flourished  by  commerce  and  trades  ?  With  what 
■emperor  began  a  happier  period  for  Germany  ? 


143 

for  it  more  faithfully  than  any  other  emperor  since  Henry  I.  Forth- 
with he  proclaimed,  at  the  first  imperial  diet,  general  public  peace, 
which  he  also  maintained  with  strength  and  rigor.  In  all  prov- 
inces he  presided  himself  at  the  tribunals.  Thuringia  resembled  a 
den  of  robbers.  He  was  employed  there  a  whole  year  to  establish 
peace.  As  robbery  and  warfare  recommenced,  he  returned  and 
punished  the  guilty  with  inexorable  severity.  He  caused  sixty-six 
castles  of  robbers  to  be  destroyed,  and  the  high-born  robbers  who 
were  caught  to  be  beheaded.  In  the  same  way  he  dealt  in  Suabia 
and  Franconia,  and  along  the  Rhine,  where,  in  one  year,  he  laid  in 
ruins  more  than  seventy  haunts  of  noble  robbers.  In  this  manner 
he  re-established  tranquillity  and  peace.  In  the  campaigns  he 
undertook  for  that  purpose,  the  herdsmen  of  the  forest  cantons 
especially  aided  him. 

His  manner  of  living  was  moderate,  and  he  despised  splendor 
and  pomp.  In  war-time  he  mended  his  doublet  with  his  own 
hand.  When  his  army  once  was  in  want  of  provisions,  he  pulled 
up  a  turnip  from  a  field  and  ate  it  raw ;  the  army  followed  his 
example  without  murmuring,  and  after  the  turnips  had  been  con- 
sumed, he  called  his  men  to  combat,  saying :  "  If  we  gain  victory, 
we  shall  have  plenty  of  provisions ;  but  if  we  are  defeated,  they  will 
also  give  food  and  drink  to  the  captives."  He  was  also  grateful  for 
any  act  of  kindness  rendered.  A  citizen  of  Ziirich  had  saved  his 
life  by  endangering  his  own.  As  he  entered  the  imperial  hall  in 
Mentz,  Rudolph  rose  from  the  throne  and  gave  him  friendly  and 
respectful  salutation.  His  faithfulness  in  keeping  his  promises 
became  proverbial.  But  he,  too,  already  showed  indications  of  the 
greediness  for  aggrandizement  peculiar  to  his  house,  for  he  married 
his  six  daughters  to  the  most  powerful  sovereigns,  and  wanted  even 
to  make  the  regal  dignity  heritable  in  his  family ;  but  to  this  the 
German  rulers  did  not  consent.  He  was  also  weak  enough  to  rat- 
ify the  usurped  possessions  of  the  popes. 

His  son,  Albert  of  Austria,  was  hated  for  his  tyranny  and  covet- 
ousness.     His  ward,  John  of  Suabia,  demanded  from  him  his  law- 

What  heavenly  gifts  did  he  declare  most  precious  ?  What  did  he  proclaim  in 
the  first  diet?  How  did  he  dispense  justice,  especially  in  Thuringia,  Suabia 
and  Franconia  ?  How  did  he  punish  the  high-born  robbers  ?  Who  aided  him 
in  his  campaigns  ?  What  was  the  course  of  his  life  ?  Give  examples  of  it. 
Mention  an  instance  of  his  gratitude.  What  of  his  faithfulness  ?  What  fault 
had  he  in  common  with  his  house  ?  Whose  possessions  did  he  ratify  ?  Why 
was  Albert  of  Austria  hated  ? 


144 

ful  heritage,  but  without  success.  The  emperor  kept  him  in  sus- 
pense by  vain  promises,  whereby  the  former  was  so  enraged  that, 
assisted  by  some  congenial  friends,  he  slew  him.  The  children  of 
the  emperor  took  terrible  revenge  on  the  guilty  and  innocent. 

After  Albrecht,  Henry  VII.  followed  (1308  A.  D.),  who  deprived 
the  Lombard  cities  of  their  liberty,  and  subjected  them  to  his 
dominion. 

Under  the  reign  of  Sigismond  IV.  the  great  synod  in  Constance 
was  held,  by  whose  order  John  Huss  was  burned  (see  §  69).  From 
his  ashes  arose  one  of  the  most  dreadful  religious  wars  (1419-1433  A. 
D.)  His  adherents,  the  Hussites  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  already 
exasperated  because  they  were  forbidden  to  confess  the  doctrine  of 
their  teacher,  and  to  use  the  chalice  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
now  enraged  by  his  horrible  execution,  closely  united  themselves  at 
the  town  of  Kniss,  upon  a  mountain  which  they  called  Tabor,  where 
they  also  founded  a  town  of  the  same  name,  and  celebrated  the 
divine  service.  Their  general  was  a  nobleman  called  Ziska  (the 
one-eyed).  The  pope  summoned  all  Christendom  to  wage  a  cru- 
sade against  them,  and  emperor  Sigismond  came  to  Prague  with  an 
immense  army  (1422  A.  D.);  but  Ziska  repelled  him.  A  second 
army  was  also  defeated,  and  the  emperor  had  to  flee  from  Bohemia. 
After  Ziska's  death,  the  two  Procops  became  the  generals  of  the 
Hussites.  They  also  vanquished  several  imperial  armies,  and  spread 
flames  of  war  over  Germany.  Everywhere  terror  preceded  them. 
Finally,  the  council  in  Basil  invited  them  to  negotiations.  Procop 
the  Great  made  his  appearance  there  at  the  head  of  a  large  em- 
bassy. The  synod  granted  to  the  moderate  party  of  the  Hussites 
the  chalice  and  the  free  sermon.  They  would  have  obtained  still 
more  important  rights,  if  they  had  lived  in  concord  instead  of 
quarreling  with  each  other. 

With  Albert  II.  the  imperial  dignity  returned  to  the  house  of 
Hapsburg,  and  remained  with  it  till  that  dignity  was  abolished 
(1806  A.  D.)  Maximilian  I.  (1493-1519  A.  D.)  succeeded  in 
establishing  perpetual  public  peace  by  which  the  club-law  was 
abolished  unconditionally,  and  oppression  and  rapine  were  made  to 

Who  killed  him  ?  Why  ?  Who  took  revenge  ?  Who  deprived  the  Lombard 
cities  of  their  liberty  ?  What  war  desolated  Germany  under  Sigismond  IV.? 
How  was  it  caused  ?  Give  a  narrative  of  it.  Who  were  the  leaders  of  the  Hus- 
sites ?  What  did  the  council  of  Basil  grant  them  ?  Who  established  perpetual 
public  peace  ? 


•  145 

yield   forever  to  the  authority    of  law.     At  a  general  diet  held  at 
Worms,  the  several  States  subscribed  to  it  (1495  ^-  ^•) 

§  66.     S^A^itzerland.     Combats  of  the  S%Ariss  Confederates 

for  Liberty.     Battles  at  Sempach,  Granson  and 

Murten.  •  Arnold    Winkelried. 

In  the  aboriginal  cantons  (Schwytz,  Uri  and  Unterwalden)  the 
inhabitants,  being  simple  herdsmen,  had  maintained  their  independ- 
ence, and  the  three  cantons  were  united  by  ancient  friendship.  They 
lived  directly  under  the  protection  of  the  German  empire.  Emperor 
Rudolph  had  protected  their  rights ;  but  his  son  Albert  refused  to 
confirm  them,  and  bade  the  cantons  to  submit  to  the  dominion  of  his 
dynasty.  When  they  declined  to  do  so,  he  appointed  Austrian 
governors  for  their  country.  These,  and  the  noblemen  who  were 
settled  in  the  land,  oppressed  them.  Therefore,  in  Riitli,  a  meadow 
on  the  lake  of  Lucerne,  :^^  men  delegated  by  them,  swore  to  restore 
the  ancient  liberty  and  to  humble  the  insolent  nobiHty.  When 
William  Tell,  a  skilled  archer  of  the  canton  of  Uri,  whom  (as  the 
legend  goes)  the  cruel  governor  Gessler  had  forced  to  shoot  at  an 
apple  placed  on  the  head  of  his  own  son,  had  killed  Gessler,  the 
inhabitants  expelled  the  governors  and  knights,  destroyed  their 
castles,  and  renewed  their  ancient  confederation  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  and  defending  their  old  liberties. 

Duke  Leopold  could  not  forget  that  they  had  thrown  oif  the 
yoke  of  his  father.  He  led  a  well-armed  host  against  them,  but  they 
met  him  fearlessly  at  Morgarten,  and  the  best  part  of  the  nobihty 
sank  from  the  blows  of  the  herdsmen.  Even  Leopold  barely 
escaped  death.  Later,  the  cities  Lucerne,  Ziirich,  Zug,  Glarus  and 
Berne,  in  spite  of  the  violent  protest  of  Austria,  joined  the  league  of 
the  three  forest  cantons  (i 332-1353  A.  D.) 

Duke  Leopold  IIL,  in  conjunction  with  many  noble  and  eccle- 
siastical lords,  wanted  to  strike  the  main  blow  against  the  freedom 
of  the  confederates.  Near  Sempach  they  commenced  the  attack 
(1386  A.  D.)     In  the  first  lines  stood  several  thousand  knights,  clad 

^  65.  What  three  cantons  maintained  their  independence  ?  Under  whose 
protection  did  they  live?  To  what  dominion  did  Emperor  Albert  bid  them 
submit  ?  What  governors  did  he  appoint  ?  How  did  they  govern  ?  What  did 
the  delegates  of  the  cantons  swear  ?  What  of  Governor  Gessler  ?  What  were  the 
consequences  of  his  tyranny  ?  Who  killed  him  ?  Why  ?  Whom  did  the  can- 
tons expel  ?  What  did  they  renew  ?  What  of  Duke  Leopold  and  of  the  battle 
at  Morgarten  ?  What  cities  j  oined  the  league  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  battle  of 
Sempach. 

(10) 


146  • 

in  iron  armor.  The  undaunted  confederates,  though  only  mustering 
1,400  men,  rushed  upon  the  iron  men,  but  could  not  break  their 
ranks.  They  were  already  in  danger  of  being  out-flanked  and 
crushed  by  the  numerous  enemies,  when  Arnold  Winkelried  cried :  • 
*'  I  will  make  way  for  liberty  !  Dear  confederates,  take  care  of  my 
wife  and  children !  "  He  then,  with  arms  extended  wide,  ran  into 
the  midst  of  the  hostile  spears,  grasped  as  many  as  he  could,  and 
pierced  through  he  fell,  puUing  them  down  with  the  weight  of  his 
body.  The  confederates  darted  over  his  corpse  into  the  opened 
breach,  dashed  the  knights  to  the  ground  with  their  maces,  and 
gained  a  complete  victory.  Leopold  himself  was  slain.  The 
humbled  Austria  concluded  peace  with  the  confederates. 

Soon  after  followed  the  glorious  combats  of  the  herdsmen  of 
Appenzell  against  the  abbots  of  St.  Gall,  who  ruled  them  severely 
and  capriciously.  Tired  of  their  tyranny,  the  herdsmen  expelled 
their  governors  and  put  the  troops  of  the  abbots  to  flight  (1403  A.  D.) 
The  abbots  asked  Frederic  of  Austria  for  help,  which  the  latter 
afforded.  But  the  herdsmen,  led  by  the  brave  count  Rudolph  Wer- 
denberg,  who,  like  a  common  herdsman,  lived  with  them,  fought 
valiantly  against  the  enemies;  even  their  wives  and  daughters, 
dressed  like  shepherds,  appeared  in  arms.  The  enemies  fled  in 
wild  confusion,  and  were  entirely  defeated.  Cursing  the  unhappy 
issue  of  the  war,  Frederic  returned  home,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Appenzell  became  independent  of  the  dominion  of  the  abbots. 

When  Charles  the  Bold  hesitated  to  restore  Alsace  to  Emperor 
Frederic  III.,  according  to  contract,  and  besides  caused  the  inhab- 
itants to  be  oppressed  by  his  governor,  the  former  expelled  his  gar- 
rison, and  as  he  advanced  with  an  army,  they  alHed  with  the  duke  of 
Lorraine  and  the  confederates.  Charles  took  possession  of  Lorraine, 
and,  at  the  head  of  60,000  men,  marched  against  the  confederates 
(1476  A.  D.)  In  vain  they  offered  him  peace,  and  their  alliance; 
he  said  that  he  wanted  to  chastise  the  peasants.  The  confederates 
attacked  him  courageously  at  Granson,  where  he  could  hardly 
resist  their  vanguard.  But  as  he  saw  their  main  forces  drawing 
near,  he  cried,  alarmed  :     "Alas !    if  before  a  handful  of  men  tired 

Who  devoted  his  life  to  his  country  ?  What  success  followed  the  battle  ? 
Describe  the  glorious  days  of  the  herdsmen  of  Appenzell.  WTio  was  their 
leader  ?  What  of  their  wives  and  daughters  ?  Of  Frederic  ?  Of  the  dominion 
of  the  abbots  ?  Why  did  the  inhabitants  of  Alsace  ally  with  the  Swiss  confed- 
erates ?  What  did  the  latter  offer  to  Charles  ?  What  was  his  intention  in  mak- 
ing war  on  the  confederates  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  battle  at  Granson.  What 
did  Charles  say  as  their  main  forces  drew  near  ?     What  of  his  soldiers  ? 


147 

us,  what  shall  become  of  us  now?"  A  panic  seized  his  soldiers; 
they  took  to  flight.  It  was  in  vain  that  he  opposed  himself  to  them  ; 
they  carried  him  along.  He  lost  his  camp,  abounding  in  riches 
(1476  A.  D.)  Three  months  after  this  defeat  he  ventured  a  second 
battle  at  Murten.  The  confederates  implored  the  help  of  God 
before  the  combat.  As  during  the  prayers  the  sun  pierced  the 
clouds,  one  of  their  commanders  cried :  "Confederates !  On ! 
See,  God  gives  us  light  for  victory."  They  began  cheerfully  to 
fight.  The  duke,  whose  troops  were  discouraged,  and  fought  only 
because  forced,  was  totally  defeated.  He  had  scarcely  time  to  flee, 
a  few  knights  accompanying  him.  In  this  combat  he  lost  15,000 
men  (1476  A.  D.)  The  corpses  were  thrown  into  large  lime-pits, 
their  bones  collected  and  preserved  in  a  chapel  in  memory  of  his 
defeat.  The  next  year  he  was  vanquished  once  more  at  Nancy, 
and  slain  by  his  pursuers  in  a  swamp  (1477  A.  D.) 

The  bloody  Suabian  war  gloriously  concludes  this  epoch  of 
Swiss  history.  Emperor  Maximilian  I.  threatened  the  confederates 
with  war  because,  preferring  liberty,  they  refused  to  have  their  land 
incorporated  with  the  German  empire.  He  actually  commenced 
war,  as  they  formed  a  defensive  alliance  with  the  confederates  of 
Grisons  (1499  ^-  ^0  During  eight  months  the  emperor  lost  more 
than  20,000  men  in  eight  battles.  In  one  (at  Malserhaide)  Bene- 
dict Fontana  first  scaled  the  hostile  bulwark.  He  went  on  fighting, 
even  when  his  intestines  protruded  from  his  wounds,  crying :  "Go 
on,  confederates !  Do  not  care  for  my  death  !  Save  liberty  !  If 
you  are  vanquished  to-day,  you  leave  perpetual  servitude  to  your 
children!"  He  died  like  a  hero.  Maximilian  was  compelled  to 
conclude  peace,  and  the  independence  of  Switzerland  from  Ger- 
many was  established  forever  (1499  ^-  D.) 

A  sad  fact,  at  the  end  of  this  period,  are  the  mercenary  wars 
which  the  Swiss,  hired  by  foreign  sovereigns,  waged,  especially 
either  for  or  against  France  and  Milartf  sometimes  even  for  both 
parties,  though  they  fought  in  these  wars  also  with  their  usual  valor. 

Of  himself ?  What  did  Charles  lose  in  this  battle?  Give  some  circum- 
stances of  the  battle  at  Murten.  How  great  was  the  loss  of  the  duke  ?  What 
of  the  corpses  of  the  killed  ?  Where  did  Charles  lose  his  life  ?  What  war  con- 
cluded the  Swiss  history  in  this  period  ?  Why  did  Maximilian  wage  war  against 
the  Swiss  ?  How  long  did  the  war  last  ?  How  many  men  did  the  emperor  lose  ? 
What  of  Benedict  Fontana?  Delineate  his  exploit.  What  of  the  mercenary 
wars  of  the  Swiss  ? 


148 

^  66.    France  and   England.     Philip  the  Fair.     Abolish- 
ment of  the  Order  of  the  Templars.     English- 
French  National  War.    Wars  of  the 
Two    Roses. 

Philip  IV.,  king  of  France,  surnamed  the  Fair,  was  a  scourge  of 
the  popes.  Boniface  VIII.  forbade  him  to  assess  the  clergy,  but  as 
the  king  nevertheless  carried  his  will  into  execution,  sent  a  bull 
wherein  he  declared  himself  to  be  the  supreme  judge  of  the  king, 
France  being  a  papal  fief.  PhiHp  ordered  the  papal  letter  to  be 
burned  at  an  assembly  of  the  States- General.  Then  the  pope 
excommunicated  him,  and  dispensed  his  subjects  from  their  oath  of 
allegiance.  The  king  held  another  assembly  of  the  States,  which 
protested  against  all  papal  decrees  (1303  A.  D.)  In  order  to  chas- 
tise the  pope  yet  more  severely,  he  intended  to  have  him  seized 
secretly,  and  conducted  to  France.  Boniface  was  suddenly  attacked 
in  Anagni,  put  on  the  back  of  a  miserable  nag,  which  had  neither 
bridle  nor  saddle,  and  imprisoned.  The  people,  however,  delivered 
him  and  carried  him  to  Rome ;  but  he  was  so  much  enraged  by  the 
suffered  insult  that  he  dashed  his  head  to  pieces  on  the  wall  of  his 
room.  Philip  then  had  Clemens  V.,  by  birth  a  Frenchman,  elected 
pope,  because  he  hoped  that,  being  a  native,  he  would  be  more 
supple.  In  order  that  he  might  rule  him  the  more  easily,  he  bound 
him  by  the  condition  that  he  should  take  up  his  residence  in  France. 
From  that  time,  during  seventy  years,  Avignon  was  the  seat  of  the 
popes  (1307-1377  A.  D.) 

Through  covetousness,  Philip  attained  also  the  abolishment  of 
the  Order  of  the  Templars.  Upon  the  same  day  all  knights  of  the 
Temple  in  France  were  seized ;  then,  under  the  pretext  of  having 
committed  secret  crimes  and  vices,  put  to  the  rack,  and  forced  to 
make  false  confessions.  Fifty-nine  of  them,  and  James  Molay,  their 
Grand  Master,  were  burned  by  a  slow  fire  (13 10  A.  D.)  In  the 
hour  of  death  they  retracted  their  confessions.  Molay  himself  had 
never  declared  himself  to  be  guilty.  The  king  confiscated  the  large 
dominions  of  the  Order,  and  divided  the  booty  with  the  pope,  who 
abolished  the  Order  of  the  Templars  also  in  the  other  countries. 

^  66.  State  the  difference  which  disunited  Philip  the  Fair  and  Boniface  VIII. 
Who  sided  with  the  king?  What  did  the  pope  declare  in  his  bull  ?  What  then 
of  the  bull  ?  What  intention  did  Philip  form  to  further  chastise  the  pope  ?  Did 
he  succeed  ?  How  did  the  pope  end  his  life  ?  Whom  did  Philip  cause  to  be 
elected  pope  ?  Why  ?  Where  did  the  popes  then  reside  ?  How  long  ?  What 
Order  did  Philip  cause  to  be  abolished  ?  What  was  his  motive  ?  Describe  the 
proceedings  against  the  Templars. 


149 

With  the  sons  of  Philip  the  Fair,  the  first  lineage  of  the  house 
of  Capet  became  extinct ;  then  the  lineage  of  Valois  followed 
(1328  A.  D.)  Philip  IV.  was  its  next  male  relation;  besides  the 
States- General  declared  in  his  favor;  he  became  king.  But  Edward 
III.,  king  of  England,  and  son  of  the  daughter  of  Philip  the  Fair, 
also  laid  claim  to  the  throne,  and  commenced  one  of  the  bloodiest 
wars  ever  fought,  which  lasted  more  than  a  hundred  years  (1330- 
1453  A.  D.)  Philip  and  his  son  John  fought  with  very  bad  fortune 
against  Edward  and  his  valiant  son,  who,  from  his  armor,  was  called 
the  Black  Prince.  The  French  suffered  terrible  defeats  at  Sluis,  in 
Flanders,  by  sea  (1340  A.  D.) ;  at  Cressy,  in  Picardy,  and  at  Poi- 
tiers (1356  A.  D.)  John  himself  was  taken  prisoner.  He  obtained 
his  liberty,  in  fact,  on  condition  that  he  would  pay  three  millions  of 
gold  florins ;  but,  as  France  was  not  able  to  raise  this  sum,  and  as 
his  son,  who,  meanwhile,  was  prisoner  in  his  stead,  ran  away,  the 
father  voluntarily  returned  into  captivity,  in  which  he  died  (1364 
A.  D.)  Under  Charles  VI.,  a  youth  of  only  twelve  years,  the  dukes 
of  Orleans  and  Burgundy  contended  for  the  regency.  Henry  V. 
of  England,  whose  juvenile  Hfe  was  turbulent  and  dissipated,  after 
his  accession  laid  aside  youthful  pleasures  and  devoted  all  his  ener- 
gies to  a  wise  government  of  his  kingdom.  He  revived  the  English 
claim  to  France,  and  passed  over  into  Normandy  with  30,000  men. 
After  his  army  had  been  reduced  by  a  contagious  disease  to  11,000, 
he  met  and  defeated  the  French  army  of  50,000  men  in  the  battle 
at  Agincourt,  killing  10,000  and  taking  14,000  prisoners,  among 
whom  were  many  of  the  most  eminent  princes  of  the  realm  (14 15 
A.  D.)  The  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  even  the  king's  mother,  allied 
with  him.  Henry  married  Catherine,  the  daughter  of  Charles,  and 
was  to  succeed  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  her  father,  while  in 
the  meantime  he  was  to  govern  the  kingdom  as  regent.  But  he  did 
not  live  to  wear  the  crown  of  France,  and  the  helpless  Charles  sur- 
vived him  only  two  months.     France  was  now  divided  between  two 

How  many  were  burned  ?  When  did  they  retract  ?  What  of  James  Molay  ? 
Who  divided  the  booty  with  the  king  ?  What  two  kings  laid  claim  to  the  throne 
of  France  ?  By  what  reasons  ?  How  long  did  the  war  last  ?  W^ho  was  suc- 
cessful ?  Where  were  the  French  defeated  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  King  John  ? 
What  of  Henry  V.  ?  What  was  his  j  uvenile  character  ?  How  did  he  conduct 
himself  as  a  man  ?  What  claim  did  he  revive  ?  How  large  was  his  army  first  ? 
How  large  after  the  epidemic  ?  How  large  was  the  French  army  ?  Where  was 
it  vanquished  ?  How  many  were  taken  prisoners  ?  Who  allied  with  Henry  ? 
Whom  did  he  marry  ?  When  would  he  succeed  to  the  throne  of  France  ?  Be- 
tween which  monarchs  was  France  then  divided  ? 


150 

rival  monarchs,  Henry  VI.  and  Charles  VII.  In  this  dilemma,  an 
obscure  country  girl  of  Dom  Remy,  in  Lorraine,  Joan  of  Arc, 
saved  her  country.  Divinely  commissioned  (as  her  credulous  age 
believed),  she  put  herself  at  the  head  of  a  selected  troop,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  furnishing  provisions  for  the  besieged  city  of  Orleans. 
Now  her  holy  mission  was  thought  to  be  certain ;  the  courage  of 
the  French  was  aroused  again,  and  the  English  were  put  into  such 
a  fright  that  they  raised  the  siege  of  the  city.  New  bands  gathered 
from  all  parts  of  the  country  around  the  flag  of  the  heroine.  The 
enemies  fled  wherever  she  made  her  appearance ;  they  were  every- 
where vanquished,  and  many  towns  were  re-taken.  The  maiden 
led  Charles  VII.  to  Rheims,  and  crowned  him  (1429  A.  D.)  But 
the  next  year,  in  a  sally,  she  was  separated  from  her  band,  and  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Burgundians,  then  summoned  to  an  ecclesiastical 
tribunal,  which,  to  please  the  English,  declared  her  to  be  guilty  of 
^rcery,  and  caused  her  to  be  burned.  In  later  times  the  memory 
of  the  heroine  was  honored  by  a  monument,  and  by  conferring  the 
rank  of  nobility  upon  her  relations.  Finally,  the  duke  of  Burgundy 
was  reconciled  to  Charles.  The  English  were  vanquished;  their 
brave  General  Talbot  fell  in  battle,  and  the  war  ceased  without  a  for- 
mal treaty  of  peace  (1453  A.  D.)  Of  all  their  conquests,  the  Eng- 
lish retained  only  Calais. 

In  England,  the  government  of  the  house  of  Lancaster 
commenced  with  Henry  IV.,  duke  of  Lancaster,  and  a  descend- 
ant of  the  third  son  of  Edward  III.  Under  his  grandson, 
Henry  VI.,  who  was  only  nine  months  old  when  he  inherited 
the  kingdom,  the  realm  experienced  all  the  horrors  of  govern- 
ments administered  by  guardians.  One  chief  after  another  seized 
upon  the  regency,  and  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  civil  wars  broke 
out — the  War  of  the  Two  Roses,  so  called  from  the  symbols  of 
the  parties.  During  thirty  years  (1452-1485  A.  D.),  not  a  day 
passed  in  England  without  slaughter  and  assassination.  Eighty 
princes  of  the  royal  blood  were  killed;  seven  or  eight  battles 
fought,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  citizens  perished  in  the 

What  maiden  saved  France  ?  Give  an  account  of  her  exploits.  Where  did 
she  crown  the  king  ?  What* misfortune  then  befell  her?  By  what  tribunal  was 
she  condemned  ?  What  was  her  fate  ?  How  was  her  memory  later  honored  ? 
What  were  the  further  events  of  the  war  ?  How  was  it  finished  ?  What  place 
did  the  English  retain  ?  Why  did  both  Henry  VI.  and  Richard  of  York  claim 
the  English  throne?  How  was  the  government  administered  when  the  former 
was  a  child?  What  was  the  condition  of  England  during  the  civil  war?  Who 
commenced  it  ?     Why  is  it  called  the  War  of  the  Two  Roses  ? 


151 

contests.  Duke  Richard  of  York,  also  a  grandson  of  Edward  III., 
believing  himself  to  have  a  nearer  title  to  the  throne  than  Henry, 
set  himself  up  for  regent  of  the  realm.  The  royal  partisans  (wear- 
ing a  red  rose)  opposed  him,  and  Richard,  supported  by  his  parti- 
sans (w;earing  a  white  rose),  commenced  civil  war.  He  and  one  of 
his  sons  were  killed ;  but  Henry  and  his  son  met  with  the  same  fate, 
and  Edward  IV.,  another  son  of  Richard,  was  proclaimed  king. 
Edward's  sons  were  murdered  by  their  uncle,  Richard  III.,  and 
the  whole  nation  was  alienated  from  Richard  by  his  crimes.  The 
claims  of  the  Lancaster  family  were  revived  by  Henry  Tudor,  earl 
of  Richmond,  and  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Bosworth  field,  Richard 
was  defeated  and  slain  (1485  A.  D.)  The  earl  of  Richmond  was 
proclaimed  king,  with  the  title  of  Henry  VII.  His  marriage,  soon 
after,  with  the  princess  Elizabeth,  heiress  of  the  house  of  York, 
united  the  rival  claims  of  York  and  Lancaster  in  the  Tudor  family, 
and  put  an  end  to  the  civil  contests. 

§  67.   The  Turks  in  Europe.  Conquest  of  Constantinople. 

Osman,  a  Turkish  emir  in  Asia  Minor,  subdued  the  larger  part 
of  anterior  Asia  (about  1300  A.  D.)  His  successor  obtained  a 
foothold  in  the  Greek  empire,  selected  the  most  vigorous  young  men 
from  the  vanquished  Christian  nations,  and  formed  from  them,  by  a 
military  education,  the  corps  of  the  Janizaries.  Bajazet  I.  enlarged 
his  conquests,  and  vanquished  the  united  Christians  —  Greeks, 
Hungarians,  Germans,  French  and  English,  Emperor  Sigismund 
being  at  their  head  (1396  A.  D.),  but  was  defeated  himself,  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Tamerlane  (1402  A.  D.)  Soon  the  Grecian  em- 
perors had  only  a  few  pieces  of  land  left  besides  the  capital,  and 
were  compelled  to  pay  an  annual  tribute.  In  order  to  gain  the  help 
of  the  Occident,  they  were  wiUing  to  acknowledge  the  pope  as  the 
head  of  the  Grecian  church,  but  vainly;  they  were  left  to  their  fate. 
Mohammed  II.,  resolving  to  establish  his  residence  in  Constan- 
tinople, declared  war  to  the  Emperor  Constantine  XL     During  fifty 

What  of  Richard  and  his  son  ?  Of  Henry  and  his  son  ?  Who,  after  their 
death,  was  proclaimed  king?  By  whom  were  Edward's  sons  murdered? 
Why  was  the  nation  alienated  from  Richard?  By  whom  were  the  claims  of 
the  Lancaster  family  revived  ?  How  did  Richard  perish  ?  How  were  the  rival 
claims  of  the  two  houses  united  ?  |  67.  What  of  Osman  ?  Where  did  his 
successor  gain  a  foothold?  What  corps  did  he  form?  Whom  did  Bajazet  I. 
vanquish  ?  By  whom  was  he  defeated  ?  What  of  the  territory  of  the  Grecian 
emperors  ?  Were  they  aided  by  the  Occidental  Christians  ?  Who  declared  war 
to  Constantine  XI.  ? 


152 

days  the  city  defied  all  assaults  and  blockading  machines ;  at  last  the 
walls  were  scaled  (1453  A.  D.)  Constantine,  arms  in  hand,  met 
with  a  praiseworthy  death ;  the  Christian  inhabitants  were  reduced 
to  slavery,  the  splendid  church  of  St.  Sophia  transformed  into  a 
mosque,  and  Constantinople  set  up  as  the  capital  of  the  new  empire. 


SEOOro  CHAPTER -HISTORY  OP  CIVILIZATION. 


§  68.  Condition  of  Constitutions.     Law.    Secret  Criminal 

Tribunal. 

The  power  of  the  German  emperors  waned  more  and  more, 
and  sometimes  there  was  no  head  of  the  empire ;  more  frequently  it 
existed  only  nominally.  Then  the  several  countries  were  obliged  to 
seek  protection  from  their  own  sovereigns.  In  this  way  the  power  of 
the  latter  increased;  still  it  was  limited  by  the  States- General, 
because  they  needed  their  consent  in  order  to  collect  new  taxes,  to 
form  alliances,  and  to  declare  war.  The  emperors  were,  at  the 
diets  of  the  empire,  as  it  were,  the  presidents  of  the  assembly  of 
the  princes. 

In  Switzerland  the  forest-cantons  and  the  cities  were  free ;  the 
rest  of  the  inhabitants  were  subjects,  in  some  places  even  serfs.  In 
Polonia  and  Hungaria  the  nobility  governed;  the  peasants  were 
slaves,  who  might  even  be  killed  by  their  lords  on  a  fine  of  a  few 
dollars. 

The  lawless  condition  of  the  former  period  was  still  prevailing  in 
.Germany;  the  noblemen,  especially,  still  perpetrated  rapine  and 
murder,  attacked  in  ambush  wagons  and  ships,  and  invaded  the^ 
boundaries  of  the  lands.  Torture,  boiling  and  burning  were  general 
means  of  punishment,  but  neither  were  efficacious.  It  was  an  ex- 
traordinary private  court  of  justice,  called  "Fehmgericht,"  which,  in 
some  degree,  checked  the  anarchy.  It  exerted  its  power  in  secret, 
and  numbered  100,000  members.  The  first  chief  justice  was  the 
archbishop  of  Cologne ;  in  later  time  the  emperor  himself.     Terri- 

Give  an  account  of  the  siege  and  fate  of  the  emperor  and  the  inhabitants. 
What  of  Constantinople  ?  ^  68.  In  what  manner  did  the  power  of  the  different 
sovereigns  in  Germany  increase  ?  By  whom  was  it  limited  ?  Why  ?  What 
were  the  emperors  at  the  diets  ?  Who  was  free  in  Switzerland  ?  What  of  the 
rest  of  the  inhabitants  ?  Who  governed  in  Polonia  and  Hungaria  ?  What  was 
the  fate  of  the  peasants  ?  What  condition  of  the  former  period  was  still  prevail- 
ing ?  What  of  the  noblemen  ?  Of  the  means  of  punishment  ?  Give  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  **  Fehmgericht."  What  was  the  number  of  its  members  ?  Who  was 
Chief  Justice? 


153 

ble  oaths  obliged  the  members  to  secrecy  and  absolute  obedience. 
They  accorded  neither  pardon  nor  appeal.  Their  sentence  pur- 
ported nothing  but  death,  and  was  immediately  executed  after  having 
seized  the  criminal,  the  judges  hanging  him  on  the  next  tree.  In 
order  to  indicate  that  the  secret  tribunal  had  passed  sentence,  they 
stuck  a  knife  close  by.  A  victim  seldom  escaped  their  vigilance. 
Many  crimes  were  prevented  or  punished  by  this  tribunal,  but  some, 
at  least,  were  also  perpetrated  in  its  name.  After  the  establishment 
of  a  better  administration  of  justice  and  of  public  peace,  it  ceased 
to  exist. 

i  69.   Church.    Wycliffe.    John  Huss.   The  Popes.    Schism 
of  the  Church.     Synod  of  Constance. 

The  public  morals  were  barbarous  and  corrupt;  cruelty  and 
debauchery  generally  prevailed,  even  among  the  clergy.  To  this  evil 
were  also  added  the  belief  in  witches  and  ghosts,  exorcisms,  persecu- 
tions of  the  infidels  and  heretics.  The  Jews,  e.  g.,  were  generally 
ill-treated,  even  by  the  magistrates ;  their  testimony  against  Chris- 
tians was  null  and  void  ;  they  were  debarred  from  acquiring  landed 
property  ;  their  children  were  excluded  from  the  pubHc  schools;  in 
larger  towns  they  were  confined  to  special  districts,  and  forbidden  on 
pain  of  capital  punishment  to  educate  a  Christian  child  in  their 
faith,  or  to  marry  a  Christian  maid. 

John  Wycliffe,  professor  of  theology  in  England,  who  has  been 
called  the  morning  star  of  the  reformation,  was  excommunicated 
and  suspended,  because  he  censured  the  popes  and  monastic  Orders, 
and  admitted  the  Bible  alone  as  the  rule  of  Christian  faith.  The 
pope  insisted  on  his  being  brought  to  trial  as  a  heretic,  but  he  was 
effectually  protected  by  the  English  nobility.  He  translated  the 
Bible  into  the  language  of  his  country,  and  continued,  till  he  died 
(1385  A.  D.),  to  teach  with  candid  courage.  Some  of  his  disciples 
were  burned,  others  exiled.  The  latter  propagated  his  doctrine  in 
Germany  and  Bohemia. 

What  were  their  obligations  ?  What  sort  of  sentence  did  the  court  pass  ? 
What  was  the  manner  of  executing  t  ?  Give  both  sides  of  the  effect  of  the 
tribunal,  g  69.  W^hat  of  the  public  morals?  What  other  evils  were  added  to 
this  ?  How  were  the  Jews  treated  ?  What  of  their  testimony  ?  Of  their  right 
of  possession?  Of  the  education  of  their  children?  Of  their  dwelling  places 
in  the  larger  towns  ?  When  was  capital  punishment  inflicted  upon  them  ?  Who 
was  John  Wycliffe  ?  What  was  he  called  ?  Why  was  he  excommunicated  ? 
What  did  the  pope  want  to  do  ?  Who  protected  W^ycliffe  ?  What  did  he  trans- 
late ?  What  was  the  fate  of  his  disciples  ?  Where  did  they  propagate  liis  doc- 
trine ?     Who  was  John  Huss,  and  what  was  he  teaching  ? 


154 

In  the  latter  country,  soon  after,  John  Huss,  professor  of  theology 
in  Prague,  being  imbued  with  Wycliffe's  spirit,  whose  books  he  had 
assiduously  read,  began  teaching.  His  writings  and  sermons  were 
anathematized.  However,  even  the  anathema  of  the  pope  did  not 
diminish  the  power  which  he  exercised  over  the  people.  He 
burned  the  papal  bull  of  indulgence  amid  great  tumult.  Large 
crowds  accompanied  him,  and  listened  to  the  sermons  he  delivered 
in  the  open  air. 

He  was  summoned  to  the  synod  of  Constance,  at  which  Emperor 
Sigismund,  Pope  John  XXIII.,  and  many  other  princes,  bishops, 
abbots,  and  doctors  of  divinity  were  present.  He  was  ordered  to 
recant  his  doctrine.  He  attempted  to  defend  himself,  but  the 
priests  did  not  allow  him  to  speak,  preventing  him  by  clamor. 
They  thrust  him  into  a  marshy  dungeon,  in  which  he  languished 
during  seven  months,  and  was  taken  sick.  As  he  would  not  retract, 
he  was  sentenced  to  be  burned  at  the  stake  (1415  A.  D.)  He 
appealed  in  vain  to  the  safe  conduct  he  had  received  from  the 
emperor,  and  to  the  promise  of  security  given  to  him  by  the  pope. 
The  synod  declared  that  people  are  mot  bound  to  keep  their  word 
with  heretics.  First  his  writings  were  burned,  then  he  himself,  and 
his  ashes  scattered  in  the  Rhine.  One  year  later  his  friend,  Jerome 
of  Prague,  suffered  the  same  fate. 

In  order  to  extort  money  from  the  credulous,  the  popes  em- 
ployed many  different  means.  They  disposed  of  the  prebends  by 
auction,  sold  the  indulgences,  dispensed  with  the  ecclesiastical  laws, 
and  imposed  contributions  for  fighting  the  Turks,  the  Peter's 
pence,  and  other  taxes.  For  money  they  were  ready  to  grant  the 
remission  of  any  crime.  This  was  extended  even  to  the  dead. 
After  the  introduction  of  the  inquisition  the  execution  of  the  here- 
tics was  one  of  their  ordinary  functions.  Their  greed  for  more 
dominions  continually  involved  them  in  wars.  For  a  time  two  popes 
reigned — one  in  Rome,  the  other  in  Avignon  (see  §  66).  Finally, 
even  three  were  ruhng  (1409  A.  D.)  In  order  to  end  the  schism  of 
the  Church,  and  to  reform  both  its  head  and  members,  that  great 

How  did  the  pope  oppose  him?  What  did  Huss  burn?  Where  did  he 
deliver  his  sermons  ?  To  what  synod  was  he  summoned  ?  Who  was  present  at 
the  synod  ?  What  was  he  ordered  to  recant  ?  Did  the  priests  give  him  a  hear- 
ing ?  Where  was  he  thrust  ?  What  sentence  did  the  synod  pronounce  against 
him  ?  To  what  did  he  appeal  in  vain  ?  What  did  the  synod  declare  ?  What 
was  his  end  ?  Who  suffered  the  same  fate  ?  Mention  some  artifices  of  the 
popes  to  extort  money  from  the  credulous  ?  How  many  popes  were,  for  a  time, 
simultaneously  reigning  ? 


155 

synod  of  Constance  was  held  (1414-1418  A.  D.)  The  three  popes 
were  deposed  and  a  new  one,  Martin  V.,  elected ;  but  he  was  not 
more  energetic  than  the  others,  and  dismissed  the  assembly  with  his 
benediction.  Since  that  time  the  popes  pursued  their  scandalous 
hfe,  oppressed  the  national  churches,  and  imposed  taxes  upon  the 
nations  for  the  benefit  of  their  own  famiHes  and  relations, 

§  70.    The  Sciences  and   Arts.     Invention  of  the  Art  of 

Printing.     Gutenberg.     Commerce. 

Hanseatic  League. 

At  last  the  arts  and  sciences  revived,  and  the  dawn  of  a  brighter 
time  appeared ;  for  civil  order  returned.  The  Greeks  who,  after  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople,  fled  to  Italy,  carried  along  with  them 
Grecian  literature,  and  several  sovereigns  honored  and  fostered  the 
sciences  and  arts.  To  these  belonged  the  Emperor  Maximilian, 
some  popes,  and  especially  the  princes  of  Florence,  from  the  family 
of  the  Medici.  But  the  principal  cause  of  that  happy  event  was 
the  invention  of  the  printing  press. 

Its  inventor  was  John  Gensfleisch,  of  Gutenberg,  a  native  of 
Mayence.  He  was  the  first  who  printed  with  movable  letters  (about 
1440  A.  D.)  Others  before  him  had  already  printed  with  wooden 
plates.  First  he  carved  the  letters  from  wood,  but  as  these  were 
not  durable  enough,  he  cut  others  from  lead.  Having,  by  these 
experiments,  sacrificed  his  little  fortune,  he  connected  himself  with 
the  rich  goldsmith,  Faust,  who  advanced  the  necessary  money. 
Peter  Schoeffer  then  united  with  these  two  and  invented  the  art  of 
founding  types  and  printing  ink.  In  this  way  the  first  complete 
Bibles  appeared  (1456  A.  D.)  in  print.  The  nice,  and  compara- 
tively cheap  books,  excited  general  astonishment,  for  they  cost 
twenty  times  less  than  the  written  Bibles  of  the  monks ;  therefore 
these  descried  the  new  invention  as  a  work  of  the  devil.  When 
Gutenberg  could  not  pay  Faust,  the  latter  seized  the  types  and 
presses.     He,  however,  succeeded  in  estabhshing  another  printing 

What  of  Martin  V.  ?  For  whose  benefit  did  the  popes  impose  taxes  upon 
the  nations  ?  §  70.  What  causes  brought  about  the  dawn  of  literature  and  the 
arts  ?  What  princes  fostered  them  ?  Who  is  the  inventor  of  the  printing  press  ? 
From  what  material  did  he  first  carve  the  letters  ?  Why  did  he  cut  others  from 
lead  ?  What  of  Faust  and  Peter  Schoeffer  ?  What  books  were  first  completely- 
printed  ?  Why  did  the  monks  descry  the  new  art  as  a  work  of  the  devil  ?  How 
was  Gutenberg  treated  by  Faust  ? 


156 

press.  Gutenberg  himself,  who  had  so  far  remained  poor,  was  at 
last  patronized  by  the  prince  elector  of  Mayence,  and  passed  the 
rest  of  his  life  free  from  cares.  The  sovereigns  and  priests  soon 
limited  the  Hberty  of  the  press  by  severe  censorial  laws. 

The  invention  of  paper,  made  of  linen  (about  1300  A.  D.),  and 
of  the  printing  of  wooden  figures  (1355  A.  D.)  preceded  and  aided 
that  of  the  printing  press.  The  latter  led  to  the  invention  of  en- 
graving on  copper.  First  the  figures  were  cut  into  copper  plates. 
Later  (about  1500  A.  D.)  the  art  of  etching  them  (by  means  of 
strong  acids)  was  learned.  Moreover,  in  this  period  the  spectacles 
(1295  A.  D.)  and  the  telescope,  the  gunpowder,  and  the  watches 
(about  1500  A.  D.)  were  invented.  Before  this  (since  1000  A.  D.) 
only  clocks  of  steeples  and  house-clocks  were  known.  By  the  use 
of  gunpowder  the  whole  military  science,  principally  the  tactics  of 
besieging,  were  changed.  Bertold  Schwarz,  a  monk,  is  said  to  have 
invented  it  (about  1300  A.  D.)  The  Arabs  and  Chinese,  however, 
already  knew  it  before  this.  In  later  times,  the  lock  and  the  cock 
of  guns  were  invented  (15 17  A.  D.)  The  compass  was  improved 
(1302  A.  D.) 

The  fine  arts  first  flourished  again  principally  in  Italy,  but  the 
practical  sciences  were  still  neglected.  The  minds  of  men  were 
by  far  less  applied  to  philosophy,  for  the  power  of  the  Church  was 
opposed  to  it.  Many  universities  were  instituted.  They  were 
attended  by  thousands.  The  university  of  Pavia  had  sixty-seven 
professors.  In  Germany  the  most  ancient  universities  were  in 
Prague  (1348  A.  D.),  Vienna,  Heidelberg  and  Leipsic.  The  first 
theater  was  opened  in  France  (13 13  A.  D.) 

The  eminent  scholars  of  this  period  in  Germany  were  :  Ulric 
Hutten,  Reuchlin  and  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam.  They  zealously  pro- 
moted the  study  of  the  ancient  classic  languages  and  sciences. 
They  also  contended  victoriously  against  monachism  with  the  weap- 
ons of  raillery ;  especially  so  did  Erasmus  in  his  book,  "  Praise  of 
Folly."     In  England,  Roger  Bacon  and  WiUiam  Occam  were  the 

Why  ?  What  did  Gutenberg  re-establish  ?  Who,  at  last,  patronized  him  ? 
W^ho  limited  the  liberty  of  the  press  ?  W^hat  inventions  preceded  that  of  the 
press  ?  To  what  invention  did  the  latter  lead  ?  Mention  other  inventions  of  this 
period.  What  influence  had  the  invention  of  gunpowder  on  warfare  ?  Who  is 
said  to  have  invented  it  ?  What  instrument  was  improved  ?  Where  did  the  fine 
arts  first  flourish?  How  many  professors  had  the  university  of  Pavia?  Which 
was  the  oldest  university  in  Germany  ?  Where  was  the  first  theater  opened  ? 
Scholars  in  Germany  ?  How  did  Erasmus  contend  against  the  monks  ?  Name 
two  English  scholars. 


157 

most  liberal  thinkers  of  their  age.  The  former,  a  Franciscan  friar, 
became  famous  for  his  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  mechanical 
philosophy.  Dante  and  Petrarca,  in  Italy,  were  the  greatest  poets. 
Dante  was  also  a  statesman  and  jurisprudent,  an  astronomer,  geogra- 
pher and  historian.  He  strove  almost  as  strongly  as  Luther  against 
the  doctrine  of  the  popes  and  monks.  He  was  called  the  greatest 
man  of  his  age  for  his  celebrated  poem  entitled,  "  Divina  Comedia." 
In  it  he  describes  the  purgatory,  the  heaven  and  hell.  To  the  latter 
he  relegates  popes  and  crowned  sovereigns  also.  Petrarca  was 
crowned  poet  laureate  by  the  king  of  Naples. 

Commerce  began  to  rise  by  the  institution  of  posts,  banks  and 
bills  of  exchange,  and  by  the  discovery  of  new  lands.  Besides 
Venice,  Genoa,  Nuremberg  and  Augsberg,  principally,  the  Hanse 
towns  in  northern  Germany  prospered  by  it.  These  towns  had 
formed  a  large  commercial  company,  called  Hansa  (Hanseatic 
League),  in  order  to  protect  their  commerce  against  the  pillage  of 
the  Normans  and  the  predatory  knights  (about  1240  A.  D.)  Their 
league  comprised  more  than  eighty  cities  which,  from  Cologne  to 
Narva,  formed  a  long,  well-fortified  series.  At  their  head  were 
Liibeck  and  Bremen.  They  kept  large  armies  in  pay,  fitted  out 
powerful  fleets,  and  waged  war  even  against  kings.  They  not  only 
monopolized  the  trade  of  the  Baltic,  but  extended  their  influences 
to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  competed  with  the  Italians 
in  the  merchandise  of  India. 

EXERCISES. 

Biographies.  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg :  i.  His  good  qualities  (administra- 
tion of  justice,  simplicity,  frugality,  gratitude,  faithfulness);  2.  His  faults. 
Albert  I. :  His  dealings — i.  With  the  forest  cantons ;  2.  With  his  ward. 
Give  a  narrative  of  the  Burgundian  wars — I.  Their  cause  ;  2.  Battles  at  Gran- 
son,  Murten  and  Nancy.  With  what  Austrian  sovereigns  did  the  Swiss  confed- 
erates have  conflicts  ?  When  and  where  ?  Write  the  history  of  England,  from 
Edward  III.  to  Henry  VII.  Show  from  French  and  German  history,  and  from 
the  transactions  of  a  great  synod,  that  in  this  period  the  power  of  the  popes 
began  to  wane.     Who  were  the  harbingers  of  Martin  Luther,  and  what  was 

By  what  did  Bacon  become  famous  ?  Italian  poets  ?  Against  whom  did 
Dante  strive  ?  For  what  poem  was  he  called  the  greatest  man  of  his  age  ? 
What  does  he  describe  in  the  "  Divina  Comedia"  ?  Who  is  relegated  to  hell  ? 
By  whom  was  Petrarca  crowned  poet  laureatus  ?  By  what  means  did  commerce 
rise  ?  What  towns  prospered  by  it  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  Hansa.  How  far 
did  her  commerce  extend  ?  How  many  cities  did  she  comprise  ?  Which  were 
at  the  head  of  the  League  ?     What  of  its  power  ? 


158 

their  fate  ?  What  inventions  were  made  in  this  period  ?  What  renowned  poets 
lived  during  the  time  embraced  in  it  ?  What  memorable  events  happened  in 
the  years  1215,  1315,  1415  and  1515?  What  celebrated  antagonist  of  popery 
died  300  years  after  Gregory  VII.  ?  How  many  years  after  the  abolition  of  the 
Order  of  Templars  was  the  first  theater  in  France  opened  ?  How  many  years 
elapsed  between  the  beginning  of  the  War  of  the  Two  Roses  and  the  conquest 
of  Constantinople  ?  What  war  came  to  an  end  simultaneously  with  the  latter  ? 
When  did  Switzerland,  in  fact,  become  independent  of  Germany  ?  How  many 
years  before  the  battle  at  Murten  did  Petrarca  die  ? 


THIRD    SECTION, 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


SEVENTH  PERIOD. 

Fronq    the    Discovery    of    America    to    tl^e    Westphaliar\ 
Peace.     1,  Voyages  of  Discovery.     2.  Reforma- 
tioq  of  the   Ch[ristian    Churcl^  and    Relig- 
ious Wars.    Frorr]  1492  to  1648  A.  D. 


riKST  OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL  HISTORY. 


1.    VOYAGES  OF  DISOOVEEY-1420  to  1530  A.  D. 


g  71.    Vasco  de  Gama.    Columbus. 

During  the  middle  ages  the  articles  of  merchandise  of  southern 
Asia  were  received  by  way  of  Egypt  or  Syria,  or  they  were  carried 
from  the  interior  of  Asia  to  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas,  and  from 
there  through  Russia  to  the  Baltic  Sea,  from  whence,  they  came 
into  the  northern  and  western  countries  of  Europe.  These  round- 
about ways  of  commerce  were  inconvenient  and  very  expensive. 
Therefore  prince  Henry,  son  of  John  I.,  king  of  Portugal,  caused 
a  way  by  sea  to  be  sought  for,  on  which  it  should  be  possible  to 
reach  Hindostan  by  doubhng  the  southern  point  of  Africa.  The 
mariners  sent  out  for  this  purpose  by  degrees  discovered  (1420- 
1460  A.  D.)   Porto  Santo,  Madeira,  the  Azores,  and  different  coun- 

g  71.    By  what  ways  were  the  articles  of  merchandise  of  Southern  Asia  trans- 
ported during  the  middle  ages  ?     What  other  way  did  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal 
cause  to  be  sought  for  ?     Why  ?     What  islands  and  countries  did  the  mariners 
discover  ? 
159 


160 

tries  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa.  John  II.  ordered  these  voy- 
ages to  be  continued.  Bartholomew  Diaz  reached  the  southern 
point  of  Africa  (i486  A.  D.),  but  tempests  compelled  him  to  return. 
He  therefore  called  it  the  Cape  of  Tempests.  But  when  the  king 
received  the  good  tidings,  he  cried  out :  "  No  !  it  must  be  called 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  for  now  the  way  by  sea  to  India  is  found." 
Vasco  de  Gama  discovered  it.  He  boldly  doubled  the  cape  (1497 
A.  D.),  and,  guided  by  Arabs  who  knew  the  route  by  sea,  arrived 
happily  in  Hindostan,  entering  into  the  harbor  of  Calicut  (1498 
A.  D.)  By  degrees  the  Portuguese,  partly  by  treaties,  partly  by 
conquests,  acquired  the  possession  of  many  maritime  countries  of 
Africa  and  Asia,  where  the  illustrious  viceroy,  Albuquerque,  ex- 
tended their  dominion  from  Persia  as  far  as  China,  many  Indian 
islands  also  being  included. 

But  Christopher  Columbus,  of  Genoa,  surpassed  all  mariners  of 
his  age.  When  a  youth  he  assiduously  studied  geography,  geom- 
etry and  astronomy,  and  even  from  boyhood  devoted  himself  to 
navigation.  Persuaded  by  the  possibility  of  reaching  Eastern  India 
by  sailing  westward  across  the  Atlantic,  he  first  applied  to  his  native 
town,  also  to  John  II.,  for  ships  to  attempt  this  passage.  Rejected 
by  both,  he  had  recourse  to  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  of  Spain. 
Here,  too,  he  had  to  wait  five  years,  which  he  passed  in  poverty. 
Many  to  whom  he  disclosed  his  plan  even  thought  him  to  be  crazy. 
Finally,  as  he  was  about  to  go  to  England  for  aid.  Queen  Isabella 
was  gained  over  to  his  purpose.  By  her  favor  he  obtained  three 
old  ships,  with  a  crew  of  120  men,  and  was  promised  that  in  the 
countries  he  would  discover  he  should  keep  the  hereditary  dignity 
of  a  viceroy. 

He  set  out  the  third  day  of  August,  1492,  from  the  harbor  of 
Palos,  and  sailed  first  to  the  Canary  Islands,  where  he  made  provi- 
sions for  fresh  water,  and  from  there  westward  into  the  open  main. 
The  sailors  were  frightened  by  the  limitless  expanse  of  the  unknown 
ocean.     They  were  still  more  discouraged  when,  after  having  sailed 

How  far  did  Diaz  go?  Why  not  farther  ?  What  did  John  II.  call  the  south- 
ern point  of  Africa  ?  How  far  did  Vasco  de  Gama  sail  ?  Into  what  harbor  did 
he  enter  ?  What  possessions  did  the  Portuguese  acquire  ?  By  whose  aid  ?  Who 
surpassed  all  mariners  ?  What  did  Columbus  study  in  his  youth  ?  Of  what 
possibility  was  he  persuaded  ?  To  whom  did  he  first  apply  for  ships  ?  To 
whom  afterwards  ?  How  did  he  succeed  in  Spain  ?  Who  was  gained  for  his 
purpose  ?  What  did  he  obtain,  and  what  was  he  promised  ?  When  did  he  set 
out  ?  From  where  ?  Where  did  he  first  sail  ?  Why  ?  Why  were  the  sailors 
frightened  ? 


161 

for  six  weeks,  no  land  yet  appeared  in  sight.  They  impetuously 
demanded  an  immediate  return  to  Spain.  Columbus,  however,  suc- 
ceeded in  appeasing  them  for  a  time ;  but  at  last  they  arose  in  mu- 
tiny; some  even  thought  it  to  be  the  best  plan  to  throw  him 
straightway  overboard^  and  then  to  report  that  he,  while  observing 
the  stars,  had  fallen  from  the  ship  into  the  water  and  been  drowned. 
Columbus  was  aware  of  the  danger  of  his  situation,  which  was  the 
more  hopeless  because  all  the  vessels  were  already  leaky.  He  was, 
nevertheless,  able  to  calm  them  once  more.  But  soon  the  mutiny 
began  again,  and  he  saw  that  the  moment  of  his  destruction  was 
imminent,  when,  suddenly  beheving  that  they  saw  land,  hope  took 
the  place  of  despair.     However,  they  had  been  mistaken. 

Finally,  the  end  of  the  voyage  approached.  Numerous  flocks 
of  birds  flew  by  the  ships.  Columbus  followed  their  direction, 
steering  southwest.  The  air  now  grew  fresher,  the  scent  of  plants 
diflusing  itself  as  at  the  return  of  spring;  rushes,  reed-stalks, 
branches  of  trees,  and  a  board,  artfully  fitted,  came  floating  towards 
them.  On  the  morning  of  the  twelfth  of  October,  1492,  the  New 
World  lay  in  sight  of  the  bold,  enraptured  sailors.  This  was  the 
happiest  day  in  the  entire  life  of  Columbus. 

It  was  the  Island  Guanahani  (St.  Salvador),  one  of  the  Bahama 
islands,  on  which  he  landed.  He  took  possession  of  it  instantly  in 
the  name  of  the  king  of  Spain.  Then  he  sailed  to  Hayti,  in  order 
to  get  gold,  built  a  fort  there  and  furnished  it  with  a  garrison. 

On  his  return  to  Spain,  he  again  underwent  a  fearful  tempest. 
In  order  to  save,  if  possible,  the  information  of  the  new  discoveries, 
he  wrote  an  abstract  of  his  voyage  on  two  scrolls  of  parchment, 
puttmg  them  into  two  tuns,  of  which  one  was  immediately  thrown 
into  the  ocean ;  the  other  was  to  be  let  down  the  moment  of  ship- 
wreck. But  the  storm  abated,  and  Columbus  landed  safely  in 
Spain,  where  his  journey  resembled  a  triumphal  procession.  King 
Ferdinand  received  him  most  honorably,  and  confirmed  all  rights 
conferred  on  him. 

Columbus  undertook  three  more  voyages  to  America  (1493- 1502 

How  long  had  they  sailed,  when  they  wanted  to  return  ?  Continue  the  nar- 
rative of  the  voyage.  What  of  the  mutiny  of  the  mariners  ?  What  of  Colum- 
bus ?  Why  were  the  sailors  appeased  ?  What  signs  of  land  appeared  ?  What 
did  Columbus  follow  in  his  course  ?  When  did  land  appear  ?  What  island  was 
it  where  he  landed  ?  Where  did  he  sail  to  from  it  ?  Why  ?  What  did  he  build 
on  Hayti  ?  Narrate  his  return  ?  What  precaution  did  he  take  in  the  tempest  ? 
How  was  he  received  in  Spain  ?     What  did  the  king  confirm  ?     How  many  more 

voyages  did  Columbus  undertake  ? 
(11) 


162 

A.  D.)  during  which  he  discovered  the  Caribbee  Islands,  Jamaica, 
the  Little  Antilles,  and  Central  America ;  the  most  southern  point  he 
reached  was  the  Island  of  Trinidad. 

The  garrison  left  in  Hayti  treated  the  defenseless  inhabitants  so 
cruelly  that  they,  at  last,  assailed  and  killed  the  Spaniards.  Colum- 
bus imposed  upon  the  Indians  a  tribute  in  gold,  in  order  to  satisfy 
the  avarice  of  his  companions  and  the  king.  The  wretches  op- 
posed him  in  vain ;  they  were  vanquished,  and  cut  down  by  the 
Spanish  horsemen.  Columbus  divided  the  land  among  the  Span- 
iards, giving  to  each  also  some  natives  as  slaves.  Most  of  these, 
however,  soon  succumbed  under  the  burden  of  the  unusual  tasks 
imposed  upon  them. 

These  cruel  deeds,  though,  did  not  afford  to  Columbus  the  ex- 
pected profit.  He  was  recalled  from  his  second  voyage  by  the 
calumnies  of  his  discontented  companions,  and  ordered  to  appear 
at  the  Spanish  court,  where  he  succeeded  as  yet  in  exculpating  him- 
self; but  when  the  indictment  was  repeated,  Ferdinand  deposed 
him  and  dispatched  Francis  Bobadilla  to  take  his  place  and  be  his 
judge,  who,  without  any  inquiry,  caused  Columbus  and  his  brother 
to  be  fettered  and  conducted  to  Spain.  Columbus,  in  fact,  proved 
his  innocence  this  time,  too,  but  the  dignity  of  viceroy  was  forever 
lost ;  and,  as  his  patroness,  Isabella,  died  soon  after,  his  merits  and 
achievements  were  soon  forgotten.  These  undeserved  mortifications 
hastened  his  death  (1506  A.  D.)  According  to  his  last  will,  the 
chains  he  wOre  during  the  passage  were  put  into  his  grave.  Finally, 
his  son  recovered  the  vice-regency,  not  by  his  own  right,  but  only 
because  he  had  married  the  niece  of  a  duke. 

Columbus  himself,  like  his  contemporaries,  believed  the  newly 
discovered  countries  to  be  the  sought-for  India,  therefore  the  islands 
near  Central  America  are  still  called  West  Indies.  Concerning  the 
name  America,  the  new  continent  received  it  from  Americus  Vespu- 
cius,  who  first  described  it. 

What  countries  did  he  discover  ?  Why  was  the  garrison  in  Hayti  killed  ? 
What  did  he  impose  upon  the  Indians  ?  Why  ?  How  were  they  treated  ?  How 
did  the  king  deal  with  Columbus  ?  From  what  voyage  was  he  recalled  ?  How 
was  he  and  his  brother  used  by  Bovadilla  ?  What  dignity  did  he  lose  ?  What 
was  his  last  will  ?  Why  did  his  son  recover  the  lost  dignity  ?  Why  are  the 
islands  near  Central  America  called  West  Indies  ?  From  whom  did  America 
first  receive  its  name  ? 


163 

I  72.      Ferdinand     Cortez.       Pizarro.      Magellan.     First 

Settlements  in  the  Territory  of  the  United  States. 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers. 

After  the  death  of  Columbus,  the  voyages  of  discovery  in 
America  were  continued  with  great  ardor.  Balboa  crossed  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien,  where  he  was  governor  of  a  Spanish  colony, 
and  discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean  (15 13  A.  D.)  Ferdinand  Cortez 
landed  in  Mexico  (15 19  A.  D.),  where  he  found  people  of  much 
higher  culture  than  he  had  met  with  before  in  America.  But  he 
had  only  600  men  and  ten  small  cannon,  besides  some  muskets 
and 'horsemen.  The  Mexicans  were  astonished  by  the  sight  of  the 
white  men,  whom  they  deemed  beings  of  a  higher  order,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  horsemen,  whom  they  believed,  with  their  horses,  to 
be  composed  of  one  body,  and  therefore  to  be  a  pecuHar  species  of 
creatures.  Cortez  entered  their  capital  without  resistance,  took  their 
cazique,  Montezuma,  prisoner,  and  destroyed  their  idols,  to  whom 
they  sacrificed  annually  thousands  of  men  as  victims.  But,  driven  by 
the  cruelty  and  covetousness  of  the  Spaniards  to  insurrection,  they 
compelled  them  to  quit  the  city.  After  having  received  a  rein- 
forcement of  troops,  they  besieged  Mexico,  and  took  it  (152 1  A.  D.) 
They  disgraced  their  victory  by  revolting  cruelty.  They  put  the 
inhabitants  to  the  rack  in  order  to  extort  treasures  from  them.  They 
inflicted  this  torture  also  upon  the  young  emperor,  and  after  that 
Cortez  caused  him  to  be  hung.  When  he  was  governor  in  the  con- 
quered land,  he  acted  even  more  cruelly.  Thus  he  caused  sixty 
princes,  and  four  hundred  other  distinguished  men  to  be  burned  alive ; 
their  children  were  obliged  to  be  present  at  their  death  as  witnesses. 
Cortez,  after  all  the  services  he  had  rendered  to  the  king,  Charles 
v.,  was,  Hke  Columbus,  persecuted  at  home. 

Francis  Pizarro  who,  from  a  swine-herd,  had,  in  the  name  of 
Charles  V.,  become  the  conquerer  of  Peru  (1529  A.  D.),  was  still 
more  savage.  As  the  Inca  (king)  was  contending  with  a  relation 
for  the  throne,  he  made  use  of  the  strife  as  a  pretext  in  order  to 

§  72.  Who  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  ?  Who  landed  in  Mexico  ?  What 
military  forces  did  he  have  ?  What  sight  astonished  the  Mexicans  ?  Why  ? 
WTiom  did  Cortez  take  prisoner  ?  What  did  he  destroy  ?  How  did  the  Spaniards 
use  the  Mexicans  ?  What  was  the  consequence  ?  How  did  they  deal  with  the 
vanquished  people  ?  Why  did  they  put  them  to  the  rack  ?  What  was  the  fate  of 
the  emperor  ?  How  did  Cortez,  while  governor,  act  toward  the  Spaniards  ?  Was 
Charles  V.  grateful  to  him  ?  What  country  did  Pizarro  conquer  ?  Under  what 
pretext  did  he  take  the  Inca  prisoner  ? 


164 

take  him  prisoner.  The  former  promised  in  vain  to  fill  up  an  entire 
room  with  gold  for  his  freedom.  Pizarro  took  the  gold,  and  never- 
theless executed  the  Inca.  When  the  treasures  were  divided,  every 
foot-soldier  received  30,000  florins,  every  horseman  twice  as  much, 
the  officers  still  more ;  and  over  a  million  was  sent  to  the  king  of 
Spain.     Pizarro,  at  last,  was  killed  by  his  own  men. 

In  general,  the  Spaniards  committed  in  America  the  most 
atrocious  cruelties.  They  abused  even  religion  as  a  cloak  for  their 
wrong-doings.  The  Indians  were  compelled  to  be  baptized ;  he  who 
refused  was  burned,  without  ceremony.  Therefore  a  cazique,  whom 
a  priest  tried  to  persuade  to  be  baptized  by  promising  him  the  para- 
dise, would  rather  be  burned  than  to  come  to  a  place  where,  accord- 
ing to  the  words  of  the  priest,  Spaniards  were  residing.  Hundreds 
of  dead  Indians  were  seen  lying  at  the  entrance  of  the  mines  at 
which  they  were  obliged  to  work.  Of  a  million  inhabitants,  hardly 
50,000  were  left  alive  after  fifteen  years.  The  caziques  were  usually 
first  burned,  in  order  to  warn  their  subjects  by  their  fate.  It  was  in 
vain  that  the  noble-minded  Las  Casas  declared  against  such  pro- 
ceedings ;  his  representations  were  left  unheard  at  the  court ;  only 
since  then  it  became  the  usage  to  employ  the  stronger  negroes, 
instead  of  the  Indians,  for  the  cultivation  of  the  plantations.  In 
all  these  horrors  the  Inquisitional  Tribunal  freely  took  part.  The 
enormous  quantity  of  the  precious  metals  which  Spain  drew  from 
her  American  possessions  contributed  to  make  her,  for  awhile,  the 
preponderating  power  in  Europe ;  but  an  inordinate  thirst  for  the 
gold  and  silver  in  America  led  the  Spaniards  to  neglect  agriculture 
and  manufactures,  and  before  the  close  of  this  period  their  best 
days  were    over.      The  Portuguese  discovered  Brazil  (1500  A.  D.) 

In  this  time  the  first  sailing  around  the  globe  took  place  (1519- 
1522  A.  D.)  Ferdinand  Magellan,  a  Portuguese,  in  the  Spanish 
service,  sailed  with  three  miserable  ships  from  Sevilla  to  South 
America,  passed  the  winter  in  Patagonia,  and  then,  through  the 

What  did  the  latter  give  him  for  his  freedom  ?  Did  he  become  free  ?  How 
much  did  the  soldiers  receive  when  the  treasures  were  divided  ?  How  much  the 
king  ?  How  did  Pizarro  perish  ?  In  what  manner  were  the  Indians  converted 
to  Christianity  ?  What  answer  did  a  cazique  make  to  a  priest  who  tried  to  convert 
him  ?  How  many  Indians  perished  in  the  mines  ?  Who  was  usually  first  burned  ? 
Why  ?  By  whom  were  they  finally  substituted  ?  What  tribunal  took  part  in  the 
atrocities  ?  Was  Spain  much  benefited  by  the  acquisition  of  so  many  treasures  ? 
Why  not  ?  What  country  did  the  Portuguese  discover  ?  Who  first  sailed  around 
the  globe  ?     Give  the  narrative  of  his  voyage.     Where  did  he  pass  the  winter  ? 


165 

straits  bearing  his  name,  entered  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Here  they 
suffered  an  indescribable  famine.  They  ate  not  only  biscuit  mixed 
with  worms,  but  even  roasted  leather,  saw-dust  and  mice,  paying 
half  a  ducat  apiece.  Almost  the  whole  crew  fell  sick;  several 
died.  Magellan  himself  was  killed  in  a  fight  on  the  Philippines  with 
the  savages.  Finally  they  reached  the  Moluccas.  The  Portuguese 
who  were  here  trading  commenced  hostilities  against  the  navigators, 
the  crew  of  one  ship  being  compelled  to  surrender,  the  other  to  quickly 
depart.  Out  of  more  than  two  hundred  persons  only  eighteen 
returned  to  Spain. 

About  ICO  years  after  the  discovery  of  America  the  settlement 
of  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America  began,  which  formed  the 
foundation  of  the  United  States.  First  the  London  commercial 
company  sent  colonists  to  Virginia  who  founded  Jamestown 
(1607  A.  D.)  The  colony  was  divided  into  several  counties,  and 
the  people  were  allowed  to  elect  two  representatives  from  each 
county  to  a  colonial  assembly  (16 19  A.  D.)  In  the  same  year  the 
first  representative  assembly  ever  convened  in  America  was  held  at 
Jamestown.  The  company  further  granted  the  Virginians  a  written 
constitution  (1621  A.  D.)  This  secured  them  the  privilege  of  elect- 
ing their  legislature,  of  trial  by  jury  and  other  important  rights,  and 
was  the  foundation  of  civil  liberty  in  Virginia.  At  this  time  (1620 
A.  D.)  the  first  African  slaves  were  bought  by  the  planters.  Later 
their  numbers  greatly  increased. 

New  York  State  was  settled  by  the  Dutch.  Henry  Hudson 
landed  on  Manhattan  Island  and  discovered  Hudson  river  (1609 
A.  D.)  The  Dutch  West  India  Company  sent  out  a  number  of 
famiHes  who  founded  New  Amsterdam  (now  New  York)  (1623  A.  D.), 
and  a  year  later  Albany  (1624  A.  D.) 

In  Massachusetts  a  colony  was  founded  by  a  small  band  of  per- 
secuted religious  Englishmen,  known  as  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  They 
belonged  to  the  sect  of  the   Puritans,  left  England  on  account  of 

What  of  the  famine  of  the  crew  ?  What  was  the  effect  ?  Where  was  Magel- 
lan killed  ?  What  incidents  happened  in  the  Moluccas  ?  How  many  returned  ? 
When  did  the  settlement  of  the  coast  of  North  America  begin  ?  What  company 
sent  the  first  settlers  ?  What  town  did  they  found  ?  What  rights  did  the  colony 
enjoy?  When  and  where  was  the  first  representative  assembly  convened ?  What 
rights  did  the  company  grant  the  organization  in  the  written  constitution  ?  When 
were  the  first  negroes  imported  ?  Who  founded  New  York  and  Albany  ?  What 
was  the  former  town  called  ?  What  State  did  the  Dutch  settle  ?  Who  founded 
the  first  colony  in  Massachusetts  ?     Why  did  they  leave  England  ? 


166 

religious  persecution,  and  resolved  to  seek  an  asylum  in  the  wilds  of 
America.  They  took  passage  on  a  vessel  named  the  Mayflower 
(1620  A.  D.)  There  were  one  hundred  and  one  persons.  They 
made  a  landing  at  Plymouth.  On  board  the  Mayflower  the  men 
had  all  agreed  they  would  obey  the  laws  that  should  be  made  for  the 
common  good.  Their  government  was  a  pure  democracy.  In  the 
cold  New  England  winter  most  of  them  fell  sick,  and  before  spring 
half  of  the  little  band  had  perished.  Some  years  later  the  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  Company  sent  many  more  Puritan  settlers  (1628  A.  D.) 
who  founded  Boston,  Cambridge  and  other  places.  John  Winthrop 
was  their  first  governor.  He  was  greatly  respected,  and  frequently 
re-elected  chief  magistrate  of  the  new  colony.  The  government  of 
this  colony  was  under  a  charter  or  written  instrument  granted  by 
Charles  I.,  king  of  England.  It  gave  the  settlers  certain  political 
rights  and  privileges.  The  persecution  of  English  Catholics  led  to 
the  colonization  of  Maryland  (1634  A.  D.)  Their  leader  was  Lord 
Baltimore.  Roger  Williams,  though  himself  a  Puritan,  desired  to 
give  an  equal  protection  to  every  form  of  religious  faith.  His 
brethren  in  Massachusetts,  therefore,  banished  him,  and  resolved  to 
remove  him  to  England.  He  escaped  to  Rhode  Island,  and  founded 
Providence  (1636  A.  D.)  "I  desired,"  said  he,  "that  the  place 
might  be  a  shelter  for  persons  distressed  for  conscience  sake." 

2.    REFOEMATION  OF  THE  OHUROH  AND  EELIGIOUS  WARS.    1517-1648  A.  D. 


?  73.     Germany.     Causes    of    the    Reformation.     Martin 
Luther.     Diet  of  Worms. 

In  the  preceding  period  the  condition  of  the  Christian  Church 
was  already  so  wretched  that  the  outcry  for  its  reform  universally 
resounded.  But  this  was  neither  heeded  by  the  popes  nor  by  the 
prelates  of  the  Church  generally,  and  the  great  synods  of  Constance 
and  Basle  passed  without  any  success  in  this  direction.  The  lay- 
men themselves,  therefore,  were  obliged  to  set  to  work  to  effect  a 
reformation. 

How  many  were  there  ?  What  kind  of  government  did  they  establish  ?  Where 
did  they  make  a  landing  ?  What  fate  did  they  suffer  ?  Who  founded  Boston  and 
Cambridge  ?  Who  was  their  first  governor  ?  What  did  Charles  I.  grant  to  the 
colony  ?  By  whom  was  Maryland  colonized  ?  Who  was  the  leader  of  the  colonists  ? 
How  was  Roger  Williams  used  by  his  brethern  ?  What  place  did  he  found  ?  What 
was  his  intention  in  founding  it  ?  ^  73.  What  outcry  concerning  the  Church  was 
universal  in  the  preceding  period  ?  Was  it  heeded  ?  Who,  therefore,  was  obliged 
to  take  the  work  in  hand  ? 


167 

In  Germany  there  were  some  additional  reasons  for  a  reforma- 
tion. The  sovereigns  of  the  empire  were  dependent  upon  Rome. 
Even  the  emperors  were  obliged  to  obey  the  popes,  because  they 
were  crowned  by  them.  The  German  prelates  and  churches  pos- 
sessed the  larger  and  finer  part  of  the  public  property,  and  were  ex- 
empt from  all  civil  charges  and  duties.  The  corruption  and  tyranny 
of  the  clergy  was  unbounded.  The  assurance  of  impunity  encour- 
aged them  to  perpetrate  the  gravest  crimes.  They  indulged  in  the 
grossest  luxury.  The  popes  extorted  from  Germany  immense  sums 
under  the  titles  of  dispensations,  indulgences,  taxes  for  the  Turkish 
wars,  etc.  They  reserved  half  of  the  benefices  for  themselves,  and 
let  them  to  the  highest  bidders,  who  sold  them  again  to  others.  By 
their  notorious  viciousness  they  had  already  lost  a  good  deal  of  their 
authority  and  power.  Finally,  the  printing  press  diffused  the  rays 
of  enhghtenment  wider  and  wider,  and  pubHc  opinion  gained  more 
and  more  importance. 

But  the  next  cause  which  excited  the  religious  revolution  was  the 
scandalous  traflfic  in  indulgences  of  Leo  X.  In  Germany,  espe- 
cially, this  pope  hoped  to  acquire  through  them  the  sums  he  needed 
to  satisfy  his  love  of  splendor  and  of  luxury.  He  asserted  that  the 
money  paid  over  to  him  would  make  amends  for  the  lack  of  morality, 
and  deliver  the  guilty  from  their  civil  and  divine  penalties.  For  a 
trifling  sum  the  remission  of  all,  even  the  grossest  sins,  could  be  pur- 
chased, and  heaven  was  thrown  open  to  every  criminal.  Of  the 
papal  agents,  the  archbishops  of  Metz,  and  the  dominican,  John 
Tezel,  carried  on  this  traffic  the  most  successfully.  "  Now,"  cried 
Tezel  and  his  fellow  preachers,  "now  heaven  is  open  ;  when  will  he 
enter  who  does  not  come  in  by  such  a  cheap  bargain  ?  What  mind 
must  he  have  who  does*  not  hurry  to  release  his  father  from  the 
torments  of  purgatory  ?  As  soon  as  the  shrove-money  jingles  in 
the  chest,  the  soul  jumps  out  of  purgatory." 

Every  intelHgent  man  was  disgusted  by  this  scandal ;  and  more 
so  than  all.  Dr.  Martin  Luther,  an  Augustine  friar  and  professor  of 

What  additional  reasons  for  a  reformation  existed  in  Germany  ?  Upon  whom 
were  the  sovereigns  and  even  the  emperors  dependent  ?  What  of  the  prelates 
arid  churches  ?  How  were  the  morals  of  the  clergy  ?  What  of  the  extortions 
of  the  popes?  How  did  they  lose  much  of  their  authority?  What  effect  did 
the  printing  press  produce  ?  What  was  the  next  cause  of  the  religious  revolu- 
tion ?  What  did  Leo  X.  assert  ?  Who  were  his  agents  ?  What  of  Tezel  ?  What 
did  he  promise  to  the  credulous  for  their  money  ?  Give  some  detail  of  the  youth 
of  Martin  Luther. 


168 

theology  at  Wittenberg.  He  was  born  in  Eisleben,  where  his  father 
was  a  poor  miner.  He  was  destined  by  him  to  study  jurisprudence. 
One  day  he  took  a  walk  with  a  friend,  who  was  killed  by  lightning 
at  his  side.  The  youth  grew  melancholy,  and  joined  the  Order  of 
the  Augustine  monks.  Here  he  had  to  perform  the  lowest  work, 
to  open  and  shut  the  church  doors,  go  with  the  beggar-bag  through 
the  streets,  etc.  His  melancholy  increased ;  nothing  but  music  was 
able  to  divert  him.  Still  he  was  studying  assiduously,  and  was  grad- 
uated as  Doctor  of  Philosophy.  He  liked  best  to  study  the  Bible. 
From  this  gloomy  state  of  mind,  which  wasted  his  mental  and  phys- 
ical forces,  the  prior  of  the  convent  delivered  him,  by  proposing  to 
Frederic  the  Wise,  elector-sovereign  bf  Saxony,  to  appoint  him  pro- 
fessor in  the  university  of  Wittenberg.  Here  Luther  entered  into  a 
sphere  of  activity  which  was  better  suited  to  his  erudition  (1508 
A.  D.)  Soon  after  he  became  also  town  preacher.  During  a  jour- 
ney on  which  he  went  to  Rome  (15 10  A.  D.),  by  order  of  his  con- 
vent, he  became  better  acquainted  with  the  infamous  life  of  the 
IDOpes,  and  with  the  immorality  of  their  court. 

After  having  in  vain  complained  in  a  missive  he  had  addressed 
to  the  archbishop  of  Metz,  of  the  mischief  of  the  indulgences,  he 
affixed  on  the  church  of  the  castle  in  Wittenberg  those  famous 
ninety-five  theses,  by  which  he  declared  the  indulgences  to  have 
been  merely  invented  by  the  popes  with  the  design  to  make  money. 
These  theses  were  translated  into  German,  and  innumerable  copies 
spread  abroad.  Luther  was  summoned  to  Rome,  and  only  with 
difficulty  could  his  sovereign  procure  him  a  trial  in  Augsburg. 
Luther  appeared  with  a  safe  conduct,  provided  by  Frederic,  in  the 
presence  of  the  papal  legate  (1518  A.  D.)  This  dignitary  de- 
manded unconditional  recantation,  and  threatened  him  with  the 
anathema.  Luther  quickly  departed,  for  the  legate  made  prepara- 
tions to  take  him  prisoner.  A  second  attempt  another  legate  made, 
in  order  to  induce  him  to  recant,  had  no  better  success. 

After  this,  the  papal  bull  of  excommunication  directed  against 
Luther   arrived  from  Rome   (1520  A.  D.),  but  without  great  effect. 

Who  was  his  father  ?  Why  did  he  grow  melancholy  ?  What  were  his  chores 
in  the  convent  ?  What  art  would  tend  to  diminish  his  melancholy  ?  What  did 
he  like  best  to  study  ?  Who  delivered  him  from  the  gloomy  state  of  his  mind? 
In  what  manner  ?  How  did  he  become  better  acquainted  with  the  life  of  the 
popes  ?  What  writing  did  he  publish  in  Wittenberg?  What  were  the  contents 
of  the  theses  ?  What  effect  had  they  ?  What  of  the  trials  of  the  papal  legate  ?  Why 
did  Luther  quickly  depart  ?     What  bull  did  the  pope  then  direct  against  him  ? 


169 

In  Leipsic  the  students  nearly  killed  its  bearer.  Luther  assembled 
the  teachers  of  the  university  of  Wittenberg  outside  of  the  town. 
The  students  raised  a  wood-pile,  a  teacher  kindled  it,  and  amid 
general  exultation  Luther  threw  the  bull  and  the  volumes  of  the 
canon  law  into  the  fire. 

Meanwhile  the  lately  elected  emperor,  Charles  V.,  came  to  Ger- 
many, in  order  to  hold  a  diet  in  Worms,  and  Luther  was  summoned 
to  be  present  at  it  (152 1  A.  D.)  Though  suffering  from  the  effects 
of  a  fever,  he  resolved  to  set  out  immediately.  A  friend  warned  him 
against  Worms,  but  he  answered :  "I  shall  go,  even  if  as  many 
devils  were  in  town  as  tiles  on  the  roofs."  However,  his  sovereign 
did  not  consent  to  his  journey  till  the  emperor  had  promised  him  a 
safe  conduct  and  a  secure  return.  Luther's  journey  resembled  a 
triumphal  procession.  In  all  towns  through  which  he  passed  he 
was  met  by  crowds  of  people,  who  hailed  him  as  their  deliverer.  A 
great  many  noblemen  swore  to  assist  him.  The  papal  legate,  on  the 
contrary,  though  traveling  in  the  train  of  the  emperor,  was  only 
scoffed  and  derided ;  hardly  anybody  would  receive  him. 

When  Luther  appeared  in  the  diet,  being  intimidated  by  the 
aspect  of  the  large,  resplendent  assembly,  he  asked  them  to  grant 
him  one  day  for  consideration ;  but  on  the  second  day  he  defended 
his  doctrine  with  resoluteness  and  courage,  declined  absolutely  to 
retract,  as  they  ordered  him  to  do,  and  concluded  by  saying: 
*'  Now,  because  they  demand  a  plain,  simple  answer  from  me,  I  will 
give  one  which  has  neither  horns  nor  teeth.  I  do  neither  believe 
the  pope,  nor  his  synods,  for  both  have  often  erred  and  contra- 
dicted themselves.  Therefore,  I  cannot,  and  shall  not  recant,  unless 
they  refute  me  by  testimonies  of  the  holy  writ,  or  by  evident  rea- 
sons; for  it  is  not  advisable  to  do  anything  against  conscience. 
Here  I  stand,  I  cannot  do  otherwise !  God  help  me !  If  this  be 
human  work,  it  will  fall  to  ruins  of  itself;  but  if  it  be  from  God,  you 
will  never  destroy  it!" 

Luther's  numerous  friends  were  delighted  by  this  bold  answer. 
He  was  proscribed ;  but  his  sovereign  Frederic  had  taken  precaution 

How  did  Luther  and  the  students  treat  it  ?  To  what  diet  was  he  summoned  ? 
What  did  the  emperor  promise  to  him  ?  What  did  his  journey  resemble  ?  What 
did  the  noblemen  swear  to  do  ?  What  of  the  papal  legate  ?  Give  an  account  of 
Luther's  conduct  in  the  diet.  What  did  he  ask  on  the  first  day  ?  Why  ?  What 
did  he  do  on  the  next  day  ?  Why  would  he  not  believe  the  popes  and  the  synods  ? 
Upon  what  condition  only  would  he  recant  ?  What  sentence  did  the  diet  pass  ? 
Who  protected  his  life  ? 


170 

to  protect  the  reformer.  On  his  return,  accordingly,  Luther  was 
suddenly  stopped  in  a  forest  by  masked  horsemen,  and  safely  carried 
to  the  fortified  castle  Wartburg,  near  Eisenach.  In  the  profound 
concealment  in  which  he  Hved  here,  he  composed  new  writings, 
especially  the  excellent  translation  of  the  New  Testament. 

Meanwhile  the  ban  of  the  empire,  inflicted  on  him,  was  forgot- 
ten, and  the  work  of  reformation  speedily  advanced.  Many  con- 
vents were  abolished,  and  a  large  part  of  their  revenues  set  aside  for 
the  ministry  of  the  gospel,  for  the  instruction  of  the  youth,  and  for 
institutions  for  the  poor.  The  priests  were  permitted  to  marry. 
Mass  and  confession  were  abrogated.  Luther  himself  laid  aside  the 
habit  of  his  Order,  and  married  (1525  A.  D.)  Catherine  Bora,  who 
had  left  the  convent  with  other  nuns.  His  faithful  friend  and  asso- 
ciate in  the  reformatory  task  was  the  meek  and  learned  Philip 
Melanchton. 

§74.    Continued.     Insurrection  of  the  Peasants.     Confes- 
sion   of   Augsburg.      War    of   Smaleald. 
Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg. 

Many  peasants  in  Southern  Germany,  mistaking  the  spirit  of 
such  reforms,  believed  themselves  to  be  entitled  to  attain,  in  con- 
nection with  religious  liberty,  also  social  equality,  and  demanded 
(not  without  reason,  however)  from  the  sovereigns  that  they  take  off" 
the  unfair  imposts,  and  abolish  servitude,  socage,  tithes,  etc.  But 
they  dealt  cruelly  with  their  lords,  destroyed  their  castles,  and  plun- 
dered churches  and  convents.  They  were  vanquished  and  killed  in 
bands,  even  bishops  acting  as  their  hangmen,  when  Luther  uttered 
these  severe  words  :  "  Slay  the  mad  dogs !"  They .  submitted 
again,  and  their  doom  became  even  sadder.  Of  the  longest  dura- 
tion was  the  sedition  of  the  Anabaptists  in  Thuringia,  who  preached 
community  of  property.  They  were  also  beaten,  and  their  leader, 
•Thomas  Miinzer,  captured  and  beheaded.  When  some  Catholic 
princes  concluded  an  alliance  for  the  protection  of  their  creed,  the 
Lutheran  States  did  the  same  for  the  defense  of  their  belief  (1526 
A.  D.)  At  the  diet  of  Speier  (1529  A.  D.)  some  restrictions  on 
their  faith  were  decreed,  but  they  protested  solemnly  against  them, 

In  what  manner  ?  What  did  he  translate  in  his  retirement  ?  Give  some  de- 
tail of  the  reformation.  What  of  Catherine  Bora  ?  Of  Melanchton?  §74.  What 
social  reforms  did  many  peasants  in  southern  Germany  demand  ?  How  did  they 
deal  with  their  lords?  With  churches  and  convents?  What  was  their  success? 
What  of  the  Anabaptists  in  Thuringia? 


171 

whence  they  received  the  name  Protestants.  At  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burg (1530  A.  D.)  they  presented  a  memorial,  composed  by 
Melanchton,  and  containing  their  rehgious  confession,  therefore 
they  were  called  the  relations  of  the  Augsburg  confession.  The  Catho- 
lic States  of  the  empire  rejected  it,  and  summoned  the  heretics  (as 
they  called  them)  to  return  into  the  fold  of  the  orthodox  Church. 
Indignantly  the  Protestants  left  the  diet,  whereupon  their  faith  was 
declared  to  be  heresy,  and  its  propagation  forbidden  under  the 
severest  penalties.  Therefore  all  the  Protestant  princes  confederated 
at  Smalcald,  in  order  to  defend  their  religious  liberty,  if  necessary, 
with  force.  Finally,  Charles  prepared  for  war  against  them.  They 
also  took  up  arms ;  but  the  emperor,  pressed  by  the  arms  of  the 
Turks,  and  needing  the  help  of  the  Protestants,  did  not  execute,  at 
this  time,  the  resolutions  of  that  diet.  At  last,  after  the  Turks  had 
been  defeated  and  driven  back  upon  their  own  territories,  he  deter- 
mined, in  concert  with  the  pope,  to  put  down  the  Reformation  by 
force  of  arms. 

Maurice  of  Saxony,  though  himself  a  Protestant,  but  longing 
for  the  lands  of  his  cousin,  the  elector-sovereign  of  Saxony,  deserted 
to  the  emperor,  conquered  Saxony,  and  took  his  cousin  prisoner. 
The  landgrave  of  Hessen  was  also  made  a  prisoner.  Maurice 
obtained  Saxony  as  a  reward  for  his  treason.  When  his  avarice  was 
satisfied  he  favored  the  Protestants  again,  and  asked  the  emperor  to 
liberate  the  two  princes,  and,  as  Charles  did  not  grant  his  request,  he 
led  his  army  against  him  (1552  A.  D.)  The  latter  narrowly  es- 
caped capture.  The  princes  became  free,  and  at  Augsburg  a  treaty 
was  concluded  which  granted  the  Protestants  the  free  practice  of 
their  reHgion  (r555  A.  D.),  with  the  stipulation,  however,  that,  if 
in  future  States  and  prelates  should  be  converted  to  the  Protest- 
ant Church,  their  prebends  should  be  reserved  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  This  article  of  ecclesiastic  reservation,  which  the  emperor 
had  arbitrarily  added,  became,  in  later  time,  the  cause  of  indescrib- 
able sufferings  for  all  Germany. 

How  did  the  name  "Protestant"  originate?  What  did  the  Protestants  pre- 
sent at  the  diet  of  Augsburg  ?  What  did  the  diet  resolve  concerning  their  faith  ? 
Explain  the  origin  of  the  confederation  at  Smalcald.  Why  did  Charles  not  make 
war  upon  them  ?  When  did  he  wage  it  ?  Who  deserted  to  him  ?  Why  .-'  Who 
became  his  prisoners  ?  When  did  Maurice  again  favor  the  Protestants,  and  what 
did  he  ask  of  the  emperor  then  ?  How  did  he  compel  him  to  grant  his  request  ? 
What  right  did  the  Protestants  obtain  by  the  treaty  of  Augsburg  ?  Explain  the 
article  of  the  ecclesiastical  reservation. 


172 

Ferdinand  I.  (1553-1564  A.  D.),  brother  of  Charles,  paid  to  the 
Turks  an  annual  tribute.  Maximilian  II.  (15  64-1 5  76  A.  D.)  marched 
with  80,000  soldiers,  composed  of  Germans,  Austrians,  ItaUans  and 
French,  against  Solimati  II,  who  wanted  to  conquer  Hungary,  and 
besieged  the  fortress  Sigeth.  Nicholas  Zrini  defended  it,  and  died 
upon  its  smoking  ruins,  a  hero  like  Leonidas.  Both  sovereigns  kept 
their  conquests. 

Rudolph  //.  (1576-1612  A.  D.)  was  often  defeated  by  the  Turks. 
For  the  sake  of  his  astronomical  reveries,  he  neglected  the  duties  of 
government.  He  did  not  mind  the  religious  troubles  which 
increased  every  day,  and  already  in  several  places  were  settled  by 
the  sword.  The  Protestant  States,  in  order  to  aid  each  other, 
formed  the  Union  and  the  Catholic  concluded  the  League  (16 10 
A.  D.);  both  parties  levied  armies ;  at  their  head  were  the  electoral 
sovereigns  Frederic,  of  Palatinate,  and  Maximilian,  of  Bavaria. 

§  7S.    Continued.     The  Thirty  Years'  War.     Insurrection 
of  the  Bohemians.    Ferdinand  H.   Restitution  Edict. 

Emperor  Rudolph  IT.  had  accorded  the  Bohemian  Protest- 
ants a  charter  by  which  he  had  granted  them  religious  liberty,  and, 
especially,  the  right  to  build  churches  and  school-houses.  Accord- 
ing to  this  right,  the  Evangelical  inhabitants  of  the  KloStergrab  and 
Braunau  built  churches,  but  by  order  of  Emperor  Matthias,  who 
meanwhile  had  succeeded  Rudolph,  one  church  was  demolished,  the 
other  locked  up.  The  States- General  of  the  country  remonstrated, 
but  without  success.  Therefore  they  called  the  nation  to  arms, 
expelled  the  Jesuits  and  chose  Frederic,  elector-palatine,  as  their 
king  (1618  A.  D.)  Moreover,  the  Bohemians  even  besieged  the 
new  Emperor,  Ferdinand  II,  in  Vienna.  But  he,  unawares,  received 
aid,  formed  an  alliance  with  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  who  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Catholic  League,  and  vanquished  the  Bohemians  in 
the  battle  of  Prague  (1620  A.  D.)  As  he  was  educated  by  cunning 
Jesuits,  he  had  long  ago  vowed  the  extirpation  of  the  Protestant 
faith;  now  the  helpless  country  was  compelled  to  endure  his  full 

What  of  Nicholas  Zrini  ?  What  did  Rudolph  II.  neglect  for  astronomical 
fancy  ?  What  alliances  did  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  States  form?  §  75.  How 
did  the  Thirty  years'  war  commence  ?  What  did  the  inhabitants  of  Klostergrab 
and  Braunau  build  ?  What  did  the  Emperof  Rudolph  do  ?  Who  remonstrated  ? 
Who  called  the  nation  to  arms  ?  Whom  did  the  States  expel  ?  Whom  did  they 
choose  king  ?  Whom  did  the  Bohemians  besiege  ?  Who  aided  Ferdinand  ? 
Who  was  vanquished  ?     What  had  Ferdinand  vowed  ? 


173 

revenge.  Twenty-seven  leaders  of  the  rebellion,  and  an  uncounted 
number  of  common  citizens  besides,  were  cruelly  executed  and 
their  property  confiscated,  the  Protestant  preachers  and  school- 
teachers ill-treated  and  exiled,  the  Catholic  religion,  and  with  it  the 
Order  of  the  Jesuits  re-established,  over  30,000  familes  driven  into 
exile,  and  free  religious  exercise  suspended.  Ferdinand  cut  the 
charter  of  religious  liberty  in  two  with  his  own  hand,  and  burned 
the  seal.  Frederic  was  proscribed,  and  Maximilian  invested  with 
his  lands  and  dignity.  Ferdinand's  generals,  Tilly  and  Wallenstein, 
vanquished  all  his  adversaries,  and  now  it  depended  upon  him  to 
terminate  the  pernicious  war  which  for  ten  years  had  devastated 
Germany ;  but  he,  believing  that  now  the  moment  had  arrived  to 
strike  the  decisive  blow  on  the  Protestant  Church,  issued  the  ill-famed 
Edict  of  Restitution,  and  by  it  prolonged  the  terrors  of  war  for 
twenty  years.  Appeahng  to  the  treaty  of  Augsburg  (see  §  74),  he 
ordered  the  Protestants  to  restore  all  the  ecclesiastic  possessions  they 
had  confiscated  since  the  conclusion  of  that  treaty.  To  these 
belonged  not  less  than  two  archbishoprics  and  twelve  bishoprics, 
besides  all  canonicates  of  northern  Germany,  and  a  countless  num- 
ber of  abbeys  and  convents.  An  universal  outcry  of  horror  passed 
through  entire  Protestant  Germany ;  but,  too  weak  to  longer  resist 
the  implacable  enemy,  it  could  only  be  saved  by  foreign  succor ;  this 
was  unexpectedly  brought  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden. 

\  76.    Continued.    Gustavus  Adolphus.    Battles  at  Leipsic 

and  JLutzen. 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  induced  by  the  most  important  reasons, 
turned  his  arms  against  Ferdinand.  He  saw  his  country  and  his 
faith,  to  which  he  was  devoted  with  enthusiasm,  threatened  by  the 
conquests  the  emperor  had  already  made  and  was  still  making.  He 
felt  himself  also  competent  to  undertake  the  great  enterprise.  He 
was  the  first  general  of  his  age,  and  his  troops  were  the  best.  He 
maintained  strict  discipline,  and  punished  every  excess  in  camp. 
At  the  morning  and  evening  prayers  every  regiment  was  to  form  a 

What  revenge  did  he  take  on  the  Bohemians  ?  How  many  were  executed  ? 
How  many  exiled  ?  What  of  the  property  of  the  executed  ?  Of  religious  liberty  ? 
What  Order  and  what  religion  were  re-established  ?  What  of  Frederic  ?  Who 
were  Ferdinand's  generals  ?  What  of  them  ?  What  edict  did  he  issue  ?  For 
how  many  years  was  the  war  prolonged  by  it  ?  What  should  the  Protestants 
restore  ?  By  whom  was  Protestant  Germany  saved  ?  \  76.  Why  did  Gustavus 
wage  war  against  Ferdinand  ?  What  of  his  generalship  and  troops  ?  What  of 
their  discipline  ? 


174 

circle  around  its  preacher,  and  to  perform  its  acts  of  devotion  in 
open  air.  He  shared  every  fatigue  with  the  soldiers,  and  was  per- 
sonally valiant.  Such  a  leader  was  followed  by  the  army  into  all 
dangers. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  landed  with  only  15,000  men,  but  they  were 
chosen  warriors,  and  the  emperor  himself  soon  augmented  their 
number  by  dismissing  18,000  men  from  his  army,  most  of  whom 
enlisted  with  the  king.  At  the  same  time  Ferdinand  discharged 
Wallenstein,  his  ablest  general,  at  the  request  of  the  commander's 
personal  enemies.  Tvhe  king  chased  the  imperials  from  Pomerania 
and  Mecklenburg,  gave  the  latter  country  back  to  its  princes,  and 
aUied  with  them.  He  also  invited  the  .electoral  prince  of  Saxony 
to  take  part  in  the  treaty,  but  the  latter,  through  fear,  hesitated  to 
make  up  his  mind.  -Meanwhile,  General  Tilly  took  Magdeburg 
by  assault,  and  perpetrated  an  awful  massacre  among  the  inhabi- 
tants (1631  A.  D.);  30,000  of  them  lost  their  lives.  Neither  age 
nor  sex  was  spared;  infants  were  thrown  into  the  flames,  and 
babes  speared  on  the  bosoms  of  their  mothers.  The  entire 
city  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The  electoral  princes  and  the  rest  of 
the  Protestant  States  did  not  hesitate  any  longer  to  participate  in 
the  league  with  Adolphus. 

The  allies  immediately  tried  their  strength  against  the  redoubtable 
Tilly,  on  the  large  plain,  near  Leipsic  (1631  A.  D.)  This  general 
charged  the  Saxons  impetuously,  and  put  them  to  flight ;  only  a 
division  of  Swedes,  which  the  king  had  added  to  them,  stood  firmly. 
Meanwhile,  Gustavus  himself  repelled  the  wild  attacks  o'f  the  im- 
perialists with  his  Swedes.  Seven  times  Pappenheim  attacked  him, 
and  each  time  was  compelled  to  give  way.  Finally,  the  king 
mounted  the  hill,  on  which  the  hostile  artillery  stood,  took  it,  and 
directed  it  against  the  foe  himself;  thus  Tilly's  defeat  was  accom- 
plished. He  took  to  flight ;  his  army  was  annihilated.  Ferdinand 
thereafter  did  not  despise  the  "  snow  king,''  as  he  ironically  called 
Gustavus. 

With  how  many  men  did  he  land  ?  How  did  the  emperor  augment  the 
Swedish  army  ?  What  general  did  he  discharge  ?  Why  ?  From  what  countries 
did  the  king  chase  the  imperials  ?  Who  would  not  ally  with  him  ?  Why  not  ? 
What  calamity  was  the  consequence  of  the  hesitation  of  the  electoral  prince  ? 
Give  a  description  of  the  calamity.  What  effect  did  it  exert  on  rfie  Protestant 
States  ?  Where  was  a  decisive  battle  fought  ?  Give  an  account  of  it.  By  what 
maneuver  did  Gustavus  accomplish  the  defeat  of  Tilly  ?  What  did  Ferdinand 
ironically  call  Gustavus  ? 


175 

The  king  rapidly  continued  his  victorious  course,  passed  through 
all  Germany,  defeated  the  imperial  troops  everywhere,  forced  the 
crossing  over  the  Leek,  where  Tilly  fell  on  the  field  of  battle,  and 
celebrated  his  entrance  into  Munich.  In  the  meantime,  the  Saxons 
had  conquered  Bohemia. 

Ferdinand  had  now  no  army,  nor  a  general.  In  his  difficulty  he 
applied  entreatingly  to  Wallenstein,  the  offended  subject,  who 
indeed  created  for  him  a  new  army  of  40,000  men  in  three  months, 
but  he  consented  to  take  its  comriiand  only  on  the  condition  of 
dictatory  power.  At  Liitzen,  in  the  environs  of  Leipsic,  Gustavus 
Adolphus  attacked  him.  The  Swedes  rush  on  the  imperial  troops 
with  the  watchword;  "  God  is  with  us,"  and  soon  beat  the  wing 
against  which  the  king  himself  is  fighting.  The  other  wing  wavers. 
The  king  hastens  to  its  aid.  Being  near-sighted,  he  is  carried  too 
near  the  foe;  an  imperial  sergeant  perceives  him,  and  calls  to  a 
musketeer  :  "  Discharge  on  him;  he  must  be  a  distinguished  man." 
That  moment  the  ball  shatters  the  left  arm  of  the  king.  He  orders 
his  companion  to  lead  him  out  of  the  crowd,  and  on  the 
way  receives  a  second  shot  through  the  back.  "  I  have  enough, 
brother,"  says  he  to  him,  "save  only  yourself,"  drops  from 
the  horse  and  dies.  The  news  of  the  king's  death  inflames 
his  troops  to  new  rage,  instead  of  dispiriting  them ;  the  duke 
Bernard  of  Weimar  leads  on  with  the  king's  spirit.  They  twice 
cross  again  the  hostile  ditches ;  whole  regiments  are  cut  down  on 
the  place  where  they  stand  fighting;  Wallenstein's  left  wing  is 
entirely  routed ;  the  imperial  powder- wagons  take  fire ;  Count  Pap- 
penheim,  Wallenstein's  bravest  general,  is  killed.  At  last  night  puts 
an  end  to  the  combat,  Wallenstein  begins  his  retreat,  and  the 
Swedes  are  in  triumphant  possession  of  the  battle-ground.  More 
than  9,000  dead  of  both  armies  covered  it.  Gustavus'  corpse,  cov- 
ered with  blood  and  wounds,  robbed  of  the  clothes  and  adornment, 
was  drawn  forth  from  under  a  heap  of  slain.  The  gray  landmark 
where  it  was  found  is  since  that  time  called  the  "Swedes'-stone." 

What  success  had  the  latter  ?  What  country  did  the  Saxons  conquer  ?  Who 
collected  a  new  army  for  Ferdinand  ?  On  what  condition  did  Wallenstein  take 
its  command  ?  Where  did  Gustavus  give  him  battle  ?  Give  a  description  of  the 
battle.  What  wing  was  beaten  ?  What  misfortune  befell  the  king?  What  effect 
did  his  death  cause  among  his  troops  ?  What  of  Bernard  of  Weimar  ?  Of  Count 
Pappenheim  ?  Who  kept  the  battle-ground  ?  Where  was  the  corpse  of  Gustavus 
found  ? 


176 

^  77.      Concluded.      Battle   at    Nordlingen.     Bernard    of 
Weimar.    Torstensohn.    Westphalian    Peace, 

After  the  death  of  Gustavus,  his  great  chancellor,  Axel  Oxen- 
stierna,  managed  the  affairs  of  the  Protestants  in  the  councils,  and 
Bernard  of  Weimar  in  the  army.  Wallenstein  remained  almost 
inactive;  as  he  entered  into  secret  negotiations  with  Saxony,  his 
enemies  accused  him  of  treason,  and  the  emperor  secretly  pro- 
scribed him.  Then  he  engaged  also  with  the  Swedes,  and  to  this 
end  he  went  to  Eger;  but  here  he  was  killed  (1634  A.  D.)  Ferdi- 
nand gave  to  his  murderers  a  rich  reward.  The  Protestants  sus- 
tained another  calamity  by  the  battle  at  Nordlingen,  where  they 
lost  12,000  men  (1634  A.  D.)  The  Swedes  were  dispossessed  of 
many  conquests ;  Saxony  and  other  German  States  made  a  shame- 
ful separate  peace  with  the  emperor,  according  to  which  the  Swedes 
should  receive  some  millions  of  dollars,  and  then  be  expelled  from 
Germany. 

In  this  distress,  France,  Austria's  relentless  enemy,  affoMed  help 
to  the  Protestants.  According  to  the  advice  of  her  great  minister, 
Richelieu,  she  declared  war  on  Ferdinand,  paying  to  Bernard's  troops 
their  wages,  who  gained  several  victories.  After  his  death,  French 
generals  commanded  his  army.  The  Swedes  themselves  continued 
to  fight  bravely ;  led  by  the  great  generals.  Banner,  Horn,  Torsten- 
sohn, Wrangel,  all  pupils  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  they  soon  obtained 
the  superiority  again,  and  maintained  it  almost  continually  till  the 
end  of  the  war. 

In  the  meantime  Ferdinand  II.  had  died,  and  his  son,  Ferdi- 
nand III.,  finally  consented  that  a  general  peace  congress  of  the 
belHgerent  States  ought  to  be  convened  (1640  A.  D.)  But  he  was 
not  in  earnest  in  desiring  peace ;  he  wanted  only  to  get  a  respite,  in 
order  to  recover  the  sunken  vigor  of  his  house.  The  Protestants, 
therefore,  continued  the  war  with  energy,  and  Torstensohn  van- 
quished the  emperor  in  the  same  field  at  Leipsic  where,  ten  years 
previous,  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  victorious.  But,  as  the  French 
were  defeated,  and  Denmark  declared  war  on  the  Swedes,  Ferdi- 
nand  once   more   suspended   further  action  on   the  already  com- 

§  77.  What  of  Oxenstierna?  Of  Wallenstein  and  his  death  ?  By  whom  was 
he  proscribed  ?  Why  ?  What  of  the  battle  at  Nordlingen  ?  What  was  the  loss 
of  the  Protestants  ?  Who  made  a  separate  peace  ?  Who  afforded  help  to  the 
Protestants  ?  What  of  the  Swedish  generals  ?  What  did  Ferdinand  III.  consent 
to  do  ?     Was  he  in  earnest  ?     Where  did  Torstensohn  vanquish  him  ? 


177 

menced  treaty  of  peace.  Still  Torstensohn  invaded  Denmark  in 
the  midst  of  winter,  and  compelled  it  to  lay  down  its  arms.  Then 
he  hastened  back  to  Germany  again  and  drove  the  imperials  on, 
gained  a  splendid  victory  over  Ferdinand's  last  army  at  Jankowitz, 
not  far  from  Tabor,  and  invaded  his  hereditary  States,  which  thus 
far  had  been  exempt  from  the  desolations  of  the  war.  Ferdinand 
had  to  take  to  flight.  Now  he  opened  the  congress  in  reality ;  but 
as  soon  as  the  French  and.  Swedes,  trusting  to  his  honesty  of  pur- 
pose, had  retired,  the  negotiations  ceased  again.  The  provoked 
French  returned  and  overran  Bavaria;  the  Swedes  besieged  Prague 
and  conquered  a  part  of  the  city.  Then  peace  was  finally  con- 
cluded in  Miinster  and  Osnabriick  (1648  A.D.),  according  to  the  terms 
of  which  the  three  principal  religious  parties — Catholics,  Lutherans 
and  Reformers — ought  to  enjoy  equal  rights,  the  Protestants  to 
recover  the  ecclesiastic  property  they  had  possessed  before  the  year 
1624,  Sweden  to  obtain  the  province  of  Pomerania,  and  France 
that  of  Alsace. 

The  first  effects  of  this  lengthy  war  were  dreadful.  Germany 
lost  many  millions  of  inhabitants  by  it ;  whole  countries  were  utterly 
desolated,  many  towns  ruined,  and  civilization  for  a  long  time 
retarded.  The  menacing  preponderance  of  the  Spanish-Austrian 
dynasty,  however,  was  destroyed  by  it,  the  power  of  the  papacy 
broken,  and  the  tyranny  of  the  Church  annihilated.  Free  investi- 
gation, especially  in  religious  matters,  was  secured,  a  path  opened 
to  the  sciences,  and  the  road  to  civil  liberty  prepared. 

§78.     Switzerland.    Zwingli.    Calvin.    Unitarians. 

Contemporaneous  with  Luther,  Ulricus  Zwingli  rose  as  a  re- 
former in  Switzerland.  He  was  a  parson  in  the  village  of  Einsiedein, 
which  was  frequently  visited  by  large  crowds  of  pilgrims,  who  wor- 
shiped the  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary  there.  In  his  sermons  he 
boldly  censured  the  abuses  of  the  Christian  Church,  especially  the 

What  country  did  the  former  invade  in  winter?  How  did  he  succeed  at 
Jankowitz?  What  States  did  he  then  invade?  What  of  Ferdinand  and  the 
congress  ?  What  was  the  last  exploit  of  the  Swedes  ?  Where  was  peace  con- 
cluded? Mention  its  principal  articles.  What  provinces  should  Sweden  and 
France  obtain  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  first  effects  of  the  war.  What  advan- 
tages did  it  afford  ?  With  regard  to  Spain  and  Austria;  to  the  papacy;  to  the 
Church;  to  free  investigation;  to  sciences  and  civil  liberty?  g  78.  What  other 
reformer  was  a  contemporary  of  Luther  ?  What  office  did  he  perform  in  Ein- 
siedein ?     What  abuses  did  he  censure  ? 

(12) 


178 

nuisance  of  the  indulgences,  the  worship  of  relics,  and  the  pil- 
grimages. He  also  called  upon  the  bishop  of  Constance  to  aboHsh 
these  abuses,  but  without  success.  Finally,  he  was  called  by  the 
government  of  the  canton  of  Ziirich  to  that  city  (1518  A.  D.),  and 
here  his  higher  efficiency  commenced. 

At  that  time  the  seller  of  indulgences,  Bernhardi7i  Samso?i,  came 
to  Switzerland  and  gathered  a  large  amount  of  money.  Zwingli 
effected  the  prohibition  of  this  traffic  in  Ziirich.  In  spite  of  the 
invectives  of  his  adversaries,  especially 'among  the  friars,  he  con- 
tinued to  censure  the  prevailing  abuses  of  the  Church,  and  defended 
his  doctrine  in  two  public  disputations  with  such  good  success  that 
the  government  encouraged  him  to  continue  preaching  the  gospel. 
The  reformation  gradually  went  on.  The  images  were  removed 
from  the  churches,  processions  and  pilgrimages  abrogated,  the  con- 
vents abohshed,  matrimony  allowed  to  the  priests  (Zwingli  married 
Arma  Reinhard'),  the  mass  discarded,  and  a  simple  celebration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  instituted,  at  which,  according  to  Zwingli's  doc- 
trine, bread  and  wine  were  distributed  only  as  typical  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Jesus. 

In  other  cantons  similar  reforms  were  accompHshed.  In  Geneva 
they  were  effected  by  the  urgency  of  yohn  Calvin.  He  was  very 
active  and  zealous  in  the  discharge  of  his  official  duties,  but  he  was 
also  obstinate  and  sullen,  sometimes  even  cruel.  He  caused  the 
learned  Michael  Servetus,  when  traveling  through  the  territory  of 
Geneva,  to  be  taken  prisoner,  because  in  a  Latin  book  he  had  ex- 
pressed more  liberal  views  on  the  Trinity  than  others.  Calvin  de- 
nounced him  as  a  heretical  teacher  who  deserved  capital  punish- 
ment, and  Servetus  was  burned.  He  also  taught  that  God  had  pre- 
destined some  men,  without  their  merit,  to  eternal  bliss,  and  innum- 
erable others,  even  children,  without  their  guilt,  to  everlasting  dam- 
nation. 

In  Switzerland  the  reformation  was  also  resisted,  principally  in 
the  interior  cantons.  They  marched  their  troops  into  the  field; 
the  reformed  cantons  were  disunited ;  Berne  hesitated ;  Zurich  alone 
opposed  the  Catholics,'  at  Cappel,  with  a  small  corps,  which  com- 

Upon  whom  did  he  also  call  for  their  abolishment  ?  Where  was  he  called 
to  ?  What  of  Bernhardin  Samson  ?  Where  was  his  traffic  prohibited  ?  What 
abuses  were  reformed  ?  W^hat  of  Anna  Reinhard  ?  Of  the  Lord's  Supper  ? 
Who  was  the  reformer  in  Geneva  ?  What  was  his  character  ?  How  did  he  proceed 
against  Michael  Servetus  ?  What  did  he  teach  concerning  predestination  ?  WHiat 
cantons  resisted  the  reformation  ? 


I 


I 


179 

menced  the  attack  (1531  A.  D.)  Later,  the  main  corps  arrived; 
the  troops  were  tired,  but  Zwingli,  who  accompanied  them  as  chap- 
lain, admonished  them  to  fight,  crying :  "  I,  at  least,  will  join  these 
honest  men,  and  die  with  them,  or  help  to  save  them!"  They 
obeyed  his  advice,  but  were  beaten.  Zwingli,  who  was  one  of  the 
last  on  the  battle-field,  was  first  hit  with  a  stone,  then  wounded  with 
a  spear.  As  he  refiised  to  invoke  the  saints,  he  was  killed,  and  his 
corpse  quartered  and  burned.  The  reformers  had  to  submit  to  a 
disadvantageous  peace,  and  in  many  places  the  Catholic  ritual  was 
re-established. 

In  the  southern  part  of  Switzerland,  Sochms,  a  pious  priest,  had 
uttered  the  belief  that  there  is  only  one  God,  and  that  Jesus  is  not 
his  equal  in  essence,  but  that  his  nature  was  human.  He  gained 
many  adherents,  who  called  themselves  Socmiajis  or  U?iiiarians. 
They  were  cruelly  persecuted  by  their  Catholic  governors,  and 
finally  expelled.  The  papal  legate  even  ordered  their  children  to 
be  taken  from  them  ;  but  in  this  he  was  opposed  by  the  govern- 
ment. In  the  middle  of  the  winter,  deprived  of  all  their  property, 
they,  with  their  wives  and  children,  were  forced  to  pass  over  the 
Alps,  which  were  covered  with  ice  and  snow.  They  wandered  to 
Zurich  and  implored  the  inhabitants,  who  had  already  been  con- 
verted to  the  Reformed  religion,  to  aftbrd  them  a  quiet  home ;  but 
even  here  they  were  turned  away,  being  considered  atheists.  They 
finally  found  an  asylum  in  the  forests  of  Poland,  and  in  North 
America. 

\  79.     Spain.      Charles    I.      Philip    II.      Secession    of    the 
Netherlands.     William  of  Orange. 

Charles. I.  (V.),  as  king  of  Spain,  waged  several  wars  against 
Francis  I.,  king  of  France  (see  §  80).  He  also  undertook  two  cam- 
paigns against  Tunis,  and  chastised  Schereddin  Barbarossa  for  the 
piracies  he  committed  on  Spain,  delivered  10,000  Christian  captives 
and  rendered  the  piratical  State  tributary  to  his  government.   Weary 

Give  the  narrative  of  the  conflict  at  Cappel.  In  what  character  did  Zwingli 
accompany  the  troops  of  Ziirich  ?  What  was  his  fate  ?  Why  was  he  killed  ? 
Wliat  did  Socinus  teach  ?  What  were  his  adherents  called  .-'  How  were  they 
treated  by  the  Catholic  governor  and  the  papal  legate  ?  Narrate  their  migration. 
How  were  they  received  in  Zurich  ?  Why?  Where  did  they  find  an  asylum  ?  ^  79. 
Against  whom  did  Charles  I.  of  Spain  undertake  wars  ?  Why  against  Tunis  ?  How 
many  Christian  slaves  did  he  deliver  ?     Where  did  he  withdraw  to  ? 


180 

of  life,  he  retired  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Juste,  in  Spain,  where  he 
died,  dissatisfied  with  himself  and  the  world  (1558  A.  D.) 

In  the  Netherlands,  which  country  at  that  time  belonged  to 
Spain,  he  persecuted  the  Protestants.  During  his  reign  at  least 
50,000  were  killed.  His  son,  Philip  II.,  established  the  Inquisition^ 
and  thereby  caused  revolts  j  the  States- General  protested,  and  400 
noblemen  concluded  a  league  for  the  purpose  of  defending  their 
constitutional  rights,  and  of  opposing  the  Inquisitional  tribunal 
(1565  A.  D.)  They  presented  to  the  duchess  Margaret^ 
Philip's  sister,  who  governed  the  Netherlands  in  his  name, 
a  petition  of  the  nation,  in  which  they  demanded  the  abro- 
gation of  the  religious  edicts,  and  the  assembling  of  the  States- 
General.  As  Margaret  turned  pale  at  the  sight  of  their  number,  a 
counselor  whispered  to  her  not  to  be  afraid  of  a  crowd  of  beggars 
(gueux).  The  confederates  chose  this  nickname  as  their  party- 
name,  and  called  themselves  Gueuses.  When  Philip  was  informed  of 
the  revolt,  he  ordered  Margaret  to  employ  the  force  of  arms,  declar- 
ing that  he  would  rather  not  govern  at  all  than  to  rule  heretics.  She 
conquered  the  malcontents  after  a  short  resistance,  and  behaved 
cruelly  towards  them ;  by  her  orders  the  Protestant  churches  were 
destroyed,  gibbets  erected  from  their  rafters,  and  hundreds  sus- 
pended on  them  in  every  town. 

Now  Duke  Alva,  the  royal  hangman,  arrived  at  the  head  of  a  well- 
organized  army,  and  took  Margaret's  place.  He  had  received 
unlimited  power  from  the  king.  He  took  the  chiefs  of  the  nobility, 
the  earls  Egmotit  and  Horn,  prisoners,  and  executed  them.  An 
uncounted  number  of  other  victims  followed  them ;  even  the  sick 
were  dragged  from  the  hospitals  to  the  gallows.  In  Harlem  the 
heroic  citizens,  two-by-two,  were  thrown  into  the  sea.  He  boasted^ 
during  the  six  years  of  his  administration,  of  having  executed  i8,ooo 
inhabitants  with  the  executioner's  axe,  on  funeral-piles,  etc.  The 
goods  of  the  killed  and  proscribed  were  confiscated ;  they  yielded 

Where  did  he  persecute  the  Protestants  ?  How  many  were  killed  ?  What 
did  Philip  II.  establish  ?  Who  protested  against  the  Inquisition  ?  What  did 
they  demand  from  Margaret  ?  What  party-name  did  they  assume  ?  By  what 
incident  was  the  name  "  Gueux "  applied  to  them  ?  What  did  Philip  order 
Margaret  to  employ  ?  What  did  he  declare  ?  Plow  did  she  deal  with  the  sub- 
dued Protestants  ?  By  whom  was  she  succeeded?  What  was  Alva's  power? 
What  chiefs  did  he  take  prisoners  ?  What  was  their  doom  ?  How  many  followed 
them  ?  What  of  the  sick  ?  Of  the  citizens  of  Harlem  ?  How  many  did  he 
boast  of  having  executed  ?     What  of  their  goods  ? 


181 

to  the  king  annually  at  least  twelve  million  dollars  profit.  After  all, 
a  heavy  tax  overturned  Alva's  terrorism.  Besides  the  hundredth 
part  of  the  whole  property,  he  commanded  the  inhabitants  to  pay 
the  twentieth  part  of  their  immovable,  and  the  tenth  part  of  their 
movable  goods,  as  often  as  they  were  sold.  The  nation  rose,  and 
declared  William  of  Orange  stadt-holder.  Though  the  southern 
provinces,  in  which  the  CathoHc  creed  prevailed,  withdrew  from 
the  northern,  William  united  the  latter  into  a  confederation,  which 
declared  itself  independent  from  Spain,  and  elected  Wilham  as 
its  chief  (1581  A.  D.)  Soon  after  the  prince  was  shot  at  by  an 
assassin,  who  desired  to  earn  the  price  Philip  had  promised  to  pay 
for  William's  head.  William  had  sacrificed  his  considerable  wealth 
for  the  happiness  of  his  country,  and  died  in  noble  poverty.  But 
his  son  Maurice  succeeded  him  as  stadt-holder ;  both  he  and  his 
brother  Henry  resisted  the  king  bravely,  and  at  last  Spain  was  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  the  Netherlands,  by  .the 
Westphalian  peace  (1648  A.  D.)  To  this  happy  issue  of  the  combat 
much  was  contributed  by  the  high-minded  Olden  Barneveld,  who  led 
the  repubhc  in  the  council,  and  by  Tromp,  the  naval  hero. 

Philip  II.  also  conquered  Portugal,  deprived  it  of  its  privileges, 
and  exhausted  it  by  his  extortions.  During  his  reign  he  lost  most 
of  his  foreign  possessions  by  the  English  and  Dutch.  Spain,  too, 
through  him,  lost  the  rest  of  its  Hberty.  His  furious  fanaticism  kept 
up  the  religious  war  in  France,  incited  him  to  war  with  England, 
and  caused  a  bloody  insurrection  of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  and  a  war 
with  the  Turks  (157 1  A.  D.),  who  supported  the  Moors,  but  were 
completely  defeated  by  Don  Juan  at  Lepanto.  At  last  the  tyrant 
died  from  a  hideous  sickness,  called  the  "  lousy  "  disease.  He  left 
to  the  State  an  enormous  burden  of  debts.  Under  Philip  IV.  Por- 
tugal became  independent  from  Spain  (1640  A.  D.) 

I  SO.     France.     Wars  of  Francis  I.  and  Charles  I.     War 

Against  the  Huguenots.     St.  Bartholomew. 

Henry  IV.     Edict  of  Nantes. 

When  the  imperial  throne  of  Germany  became  vacant  by  the 

How  much  was  the  annual  profit  of  the  king  ?  What  taxes  did  he  charge  on 
movable  and  immovable  goods  ?  What  was  the  effect  of  this  tyranny  ?  Who 
was  the  leader  of  the  insurrection?  What  was  he  declared?  How  did  he  die? 
What  had  he  sacrificed  ?  What  of  his  sons  Maurice  and  Henry  ?  Of  Olden 
Barneveld  and  Tromp  ?  When  was  Spain  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Netherlands  ?  What  of  Portugal  ?  By  whom  did  Philip  II. 
lose  his  foreign  possessions  ?  What  of  his  fanaticism  ?  How  did  he  go  to  de- 
struction ?     What  of  Portugal  under  Philip  IV.? 


182 

death  of  Maximilian,  Francis  /.,  of  France,  and  Charles  I.  (V.), 
were  competitors  for  the  crown ;  and  on  the  success  of  the  latter, 
the  mutual  claims  of  the  two  princes  on  each  other's  dominions, 
especially  in  Italy  and  the  Low  Countries,  soon  made  them  declared 
enemies.  Francis  waged  four  wars  against  Charles  V.  In  the  first 
war  the  duke  of  Bourbon,  his  best  general,  who  had  received 
repeated  affronts  from  the  king,  his  master,  deserted  to  Charles,  and 
was  by  him  invested  with  the  chief  command  of  his  forces.  Francis 
was  defeated  by  him  in  the  battle  of  Pa  via  and  taken  prisoner,  and 
his  army  almost  totally  destroyed.  The  duke  gave  all  Italy  up  to 
pillage.  To  obtain  the  greater  plunder,  he  marched  upon  Rome; 
the  city  was  attacked  and  carried  by  storm.  Although  Bourbon  fell 
in  the  assault,  the  pillage  was  universal,  neither  convents  nor 
churches  being  spared.  From  seven  to  eight  thousand  Romans 
were  massacred  the  first  day,  and  the  most  barbarous  ravages  of  the 
Goths  and  Huns  did  not  surpass  those  of  the  army  of  the  first 
prince  in  Christendom.  In  the  second  war,  the  admiral  of  Francis, 
Andrew  Doria,  deserted  to  the  emperor,  delivered  his  native  town, 
Genoay  from  French  dominion,  and  gave  it  a  republican  constitu- 
tion.    Francis  lost  his  possessions  in  Italy. 

Aside  from  this  his  conflicts  with  the  Huguenots  took  up  much 
of  his  time.  They  were  followers  of  the  Reformed  Church,  in 
Switzerland,  and  their  name  was  probably  derived  from  the  word 
"  Eidgenossen  "  (confederates),  as  the  Swiss,  among  whom  the  Re- 
formed Church  had  the  most  members,  were  usually  called  so.  In 
France  their  number  was  very  considerable,  even  among  the  nobil- 
ity, and  at  the  royal  court  many  of  them  were  found.  But  Francis 
persecuted  them  cruelly;  he  even,  during  a  solemn  procession, 
caused  several  of  them  to  be  burned. 

Under  his  son,  Hefiry  II.,  executions  by  fire  frequently  occurred. 
Under  the  sons  of  the  latter  these  persecutions  turned  into  open 
warfare.  The  Reformers,  indeed,  had  bad  success  in  several  cam- 
paigns; their  religious  liberty,  however,  was  always  increasing,  and 

I  80.  What  caused  the  enmity  between  Francis  I.  and  Charles  I.  ?  How 
many  wars  did  Francis  I.  wage  against  Charles  ?  What  of  the  duke  of  Bourbon  ? 
Where  did  he  defeat  and  capture  Francis  ?  What  city  did  he  carry  by  storm  ? 
What  misery  was  inflicted  upon  it  ?  How  many  inhabitants  were  killed  ?  Who 
deserted  in  the  second  war  ?  What  constitution  did  Doria  give  to  Genoa  ? 
What  did  Francis  lose  ?  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  "  Huguenots  ?  "  How 
were  the  Huguenots  treated  by  Francis?  By  Henry  II.?  Into  what  did  the 
persecution  turn  under  his  sons  ?  What  of  the  religious  liberty  of  the  Huguenots  ? 


I 


183 

finally  peace  was  made.  Even  a  marriage  was  to  be  consummated 
between  prince  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  confessed  the  Reformed 
creed,  and  the  sister  of  king  Charles  IX.  But,  probably,  thereby 
the  vigilance  of  the  Reformers  was  only  to  be  lulled  to  rest.  The 
noblest  of  them  were  allured  to  Paris  and  lodged  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  admiral  Coligny^  the  venerable  leader  of  the  Reformers. 
The  nuptials  were  celebrated  on  the  ill-famed  night  of  Bartholomew 
(Aug.  24,  1572  A.  D.)  At  a  signal  given  by  the  king,  all  Hugue- 
nots in  Paris  were  murdered.  The  royal  guard,  the  city  militia, 
and  many  inhabitants  vied  with  each  other  in  fury  and  cruelty. 
The  Catholics  wore  white  crosses  as  badges  on  their  hats,  the 
windows  of  their  dwellings  were  illuminated.  In  the  royal  castle  the 
blood  was  drizzling  in  all  corners.  The  murderers  penetrated  to  the 
very  bed-chambers  of  the  new-married  queen ;  she  fled  to  her  sister, 
and  saw  at  the  door  a  nobleman  stabbed  close  to  her.  Charles  him- 
self fired  at  the  fugitives.  The  next  day  he  walked  with  his  court- 
iers through  the  streets,  looking  at  the  decomposing  corpses,  and  as 
they  turned  away  disgusted  from  Coligny's  corpse,  he  jokingly  said : 
"A  dead  enemy  always  smells  nicely."  His  mother,  with  her 
court-ladies,  also  passed  through  the  streets,  and  rejoiced  at  the 
hideous  sight.  The  slaughter  in  Paris  lasted  one  week;  5,000 
persons  lost  their  lives.  Charles  also  sent  his  orders  for  slaughter  to 
the  provinces ;  only  a  few  governors  refused  to  execute  them.  In  all, 
at  least  40,000  Huguenots  were  killed.  Henry  of  Navarre  was 
compelled  to  forswear  his  creed ;  as  he  hesitated  to  do  so,  Charles 
threatened  to  kill  him;  after  this  he  turned  Catholic.  The  pope 
celebrated  the  news  of  the  Saint  Bartholomew  massacre  like  a  holy- 
day,  and  had  a  medal  stamped  to  commemorate  it. 

But  the  Reformers,  nevertheless,  remained  unsubdued.  They 
were  for  eight  months  besieged  in  Rochelle,  where  they  defended 
themselves  courageously,  and  by  a  new  treaty  of  peace  compelled 
their    former   rights    to    be    confirmed.       Charles,    tormented  by 

What  marriage  was  to  be  consummated  ?  Who  was  allured  to  Paris  ?  In 
whose  neighborhood  were  the  Huguenots  lodged  ?  In  what  night  were  the 
nuptials  celebrated  ?  Give  the  narrative  of  the  events  of  that  night.  What  were 
the  badges  of  the  Catholics  ?  What  happened  in  the  royal  castle  ?  What  of  the 
king  ?  What  did  he  say  when  he  saw  the  corpse  of  Coligny  ?  What  of  his 
mother  ?  How  long  did  the  slaughter  in  Paris  continue  ?  What  of  the  gov- 
ernors in  the  provinces  ?  How  many  Huguenots,  in  all,  were  killed  ?  What 
was  Henry  of  Navarre  compelled  to  forswear  ?  What  of  the  pope  ?  Were  the 
Huguenots  subdued  ?     Where  were  they  besieged  ? 


184 

terrible  remorses,  died  (1574  A.  D.)  His  brother  Henry  III.^  a 
faint-hearted  debauchee,  again  began  war.  Henry  of  Navarre, 
recanting  his  apostacy,  became  chief  of  the  Huguenots.  The  king, 
pressed  hard  by  their  arms,  granted  them  almost  equal  rights 
with  the  Catholics.  After  his  murder  (1589  A.  D.)  Henry  was  pro- 
claimed king  in  the  camp  of  the  Huguenots;  he  totally  defeated 
his  adversaries  at  Ivry  (1590  A.  D.),  but  comprehending  that  a 
Huguenot  never  could  become  king  of  a  Catholic  country,  he  for- 
swore his  faith  once  more,  and  went  again  to  mass.  Owing  to  this 
change  of  creed,  he  was  generally  acknowledged  king  (1594  A.  D.) 
With  him  the  house  of  Bourbon  conimenced  to  reign. 

Henry,  assisted  by  his  excellent  minister  and  friend,*Sully,  re- 
stored the  prosperity  of  France.  Sully  not  only  discharged  its 
debts,  but  collected  also  a  great  treasure.  The  charges  of  the  peo- 
ple were  considerably  diminished.  Most  of  all,  he  took  care  of 
agriculture,  the  source  of  national  wealth.  The  Seine  and  Loire 
were  connected  by  a  canal.  Henry,  by  the  edict  of  Nantes,  secured 
to  the  Huguenots  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion,  and  an  equal 
claim  with  the  CathoHcs  to  all  offices  and  dignities  (1598  A.  D.) 
The  stabs  of  a  knife  in  the  hands  of  the  fanatic  Francis  Ravaillac 
put  an  end  to  his  life  (16 10  A.  D.)  He  was  the  best  and  most  be- 
loved king  of  France. 

Louis  XHL,  by  the  advice  of  his  minister,  Richelieu,  seized  from 
the  Huguenots  all  their  places  of  security.  Rochelle  was  obstinately 
defended.  Fifteen  thousand  men  perished  by  hunger.  The  fortress 
w^as  demolished.  He,  however,  granted  to  the  subdued  the  free 
exercise  of  their  rehgion.  Sully  left,  mourning  the  corruption  of 
his  court. 

I  81.     England    and    Scotland.     Henry   VIIL     Elizabeth. 
Mary  Stuart.     Charles    I. 

Henry  VIIL  (1509- 1547  A.  D.)  founded  the  English  or  Epis- 
copal Church,  the  tenets  of  which  are  between  the  Catholic  and  the 
Protestant.     For  divorcing  his  first  wife,  and  marrying  Anne  Boleyn, 

What  of  Henry  III.  ?  Who  became  chief  of  the  Huguenots  ?  Wliat  of  him, 
when  the  king  was  murdered  ?  What  of  his  adversaries  ?  On  what  condition 
was  he  generally  acknowledged  king?  What  house  commenced  to  reign 
with  him  ?  WTiat  of  Sully  and  his  actions  ?  What  did  Henry  secure  to  the 
Huguenots  ?  How  did  he  lose  his  life  ?  What  of  Louis  XIII.  and  the  Hugue- 
nots ?  What  of  Rochelle?  What  did  he  grant  to  them  ?  g  81.  What  Church 
did  Henry  VIII.  found?     Why  was  he  excommunicated  ? 


185 

he  was  excommunicated,  a  measure  which  induced  him  to  break  off 
all  allegiance  to  Rome,  and  to  declare  himself  supreme  head  of  the 
English  Church.  He  carried  his  reforms  into  execution  by  capital 
punishment,  which  he  inflicted,  without  discriminating  between  any 
creed,  on  Catholics,  Lutherans  and  Calvinists.  He  put  even  women 
and  maidens  to  the  flames,  e.  g.,  Anna  Askue,  a  lady  distinguished 
for  youth  and  beauty,  who  had  slightly  doubted  the  real  presence 
of  Jesus  in  the  Holy  Supper.  .  With  the  same  tyranny  he  dealt 
with  his  wives.  Three  years  after  having  married  Anne  Boleyn  he 
brought  her  from  the  throne  to  the  scaffold,  and  married  Jane  Sey- 
mour, and  after  her  death,  Anne  of  Cleves,  from  whom  he  soon 
procured  a  divorce,  taking  Catharine  Howard  for  his  wife ;  but  on 
a  charge  of  dissolute  conduct  she  was  also  brought  to  the  scaflbld. 
His  last  wife  was  Catharine  Parr,  and  even  she  came  near  being 
brought  to  the  block  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  when  he  died  (1547 
A.  D.)  His  minister,  Cromwell,  on  whose  recommendation  he  had 
married  Anne  of  Cleves,  was,  as  the  king  began  to  dislike  her,  un- 
justly condemned  and  executed  on  a  charge  of  treason.  The  cele- 
brated Wolsey  was  also  accused  of  treason,  and  stripped  of  all  his 
possessions.  He  died  of  a  broken  heart  (1530  A.  D.)  The  vir- 
tuous chancellor  Thomas  Morus  also  had  to  perish  on  the  scaffold, 
because  he  declared  Henry's  first-born  daughter  to  be  entitled  to 
the  inheritance  of  the  crown. 

The  cowardly  parliament  acted  according  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
despot,  declared  his  marriages  vaHd  or  invalid,  his  daughters  legiti- 
mate or  bastards,  as  he  demanded  it ;  and  even  resolved  that  he 
was  permitted  to  make  any  law  without  their  agreement.  Accord- 
ing to  his  last  will,  his  son  Edward  was  to  be  first  heir  to  the  throne, 
after  him  Mary,  and  then  Elizabeth. 

After  him  Edward  VI.  governed,  under  guardianship.  The 
duke  of  Northumberland  was  successful  in  persuading  him  to  nomi- 
nate as  his  successor  his  daughter-in-law,  Jane  Grey,  excluding 
thereby   the  legitimate    heiress,  Mary.     Jane  was  queen  only  ten 

Why  did  he  declare  himself  supreme  head  of  the  English  Church  ?  How 
did  he  carry  his  reforms  into  execution  ?  Give  an  example  of  his  cruelty. 
How  did  he  deal  with  his  wives  ?  With  Anne  Boleyn  ?  With  Anne  of  Cleves  ? 
With  Catharine  Howard?  With  Cromwell?  With  Wolsey?  With  Thomas 
Morus  ?  How  did  the  parliament  act  ?  What  was  his  last  will  with  regard  to 
the  succession  ?  Whom  did  Edward  VI.  nominate  as  his  successor  ?  By  whom 
was  he  persuaded  to  do  so  ?  What  of  Jane  Grey,  her  husband,  and  her  father- 
in-law  ? 


186 

days.  Her  father-in-law,  and  herself  with  her  husband,  died  on 
the  scaffold  (1553  A.  D.)  Mary,  Henry's  daughter  from  his  first 
wife,  then  became  queen  (1553-1558  A.  D.)  Being  a  Catholic, 
and  governed  by  her  husband,  Philip  I.,  king  of  Spain,  she  re- 
established the  mass,  and  stibdued  England  to  the  pope.  During 
three  years  270  Protestants  died  in  the  flames.  She  was  called 
"bloody"  Mary. 

Queen  Elizabeth  ( 1558- 1603  A. D.),  restored  the  Episcopal  Church. 
Philip  wooed  her,  and  meeting  with  a  refusal,  became  her  implac- 
able enemy.  He  armed,  against  her  and  the  Netherlands,  the 
"  Invincible  Armada,"  as  he  called  the  fleet.  It  numbered  160 
sails,  and  carried  2,630  cannons  and  30,000  of  the  bravest  Spanish 
troops  on  board.  Thirty  thousand  others  were  to  invade  England 
from  the  Netherlands;  Elizabeth  and  her  Church  were  to  be  anni- 
hilated in  one  campaign.  The  pope  had  blessed  the  expedition, 
and  offered  the  sovereignty  of  England  as  the  conqueror's  prize. 
Elizabeth  was  not  discouraged ;  she  visited  the  seaports  in  person, 
superintended  the  preparations  for  defense,  and  on  horseback  ad- 
dressed the  troops.  Lord  Howard,  of  Effingham,  was  appointed 
admiral  of  the  fleet.  Drake,  Hawkins  and  Frobisher,  the  most 
renowned  seamen  in  Europe,  served  under  him,  while  an  army  of 
45,000  men  was  organized  for  the  defense  of  the  coast  and  the  cap- 
ital. One-half  of  the  large,  unwieldy  Spanish  ships  were  destroyed 
by  storms;  the  other  by  the  English  and  Dutch  (1589  A.  D.)  The 
defeat  of  the  "Armada  "  was  regarded  as  the  triumph  of  the  Prot- 
estant cause;  it  raised  the  courage  of  the  Netherlands  and  the 
Huguenots  in  France,  and  destroyed  the  decisive  influence  Spain 
had  long  maintained  in  the  affairs  of  Europe.  The  EngHsh  con- 
tinued the  naval  war,  and  captured  the  rich  cargoes  of  many  Span- 
ish ships. 

At  this  time  England  held  the  balance  of  power  in  Christen- 
dom.    No  monarch  of  England  ever  surpassed  Elizabeth  in  firm- 

Who  succeeded  her?  Who  was  Mary's  husband?  What  did  she  re-es- 
tablish ?  How  many  Protestants  were  burned  in  three  years  .-'  What  was  she 
called?  What  Church  did  Elizabeth  restore?  Why  did  Philip  II.  become  her 
implacable  enemy  ?  What  fleet  did  he  arm  against  her  ?  Give  an  account  of  the 
"  Armada."  How  did  Elizabeth  act  in  this  situation  ?  Who  was  admiral  of  the 
fleet  ?  What  seamen  served  under  him  ?  Who  was  to  defend  the  coast  and 
London?  How  was  the  "Armada"  destroyed?  What  happy  results  did  its 
destruction  cause  for  the  Protestants  and  Huguenots,  and  what  harm  to  Spain  ? 
What  of  Elizabeth's  government,  compared  with  that  of  other  sovereigns  ? 


187 

ness  and  address,  and  none  ever  conducted  the  government  with 
more  uniform  success.  She  provided  for  the  welfare  of  England; 
yet  her  political  maxims  were  arbitrary  in  the  extreme,  and  she  had 
little  regard  for  the  liberties  of  her  people,  or  the  privileges  of  par- 
liament. It  was  not  allowable  for  two  or  three  persons  to  read  the 
Bible  together,  or  to  converse  in  company  on  reHgion. 

But  the  darkest  stain  of  her  history,  was  the  unjust  execution  of 
Mary  Stuart,  queen  of  Scotland.  Educated  in  France,  in  the 
Catholic  faith,  Mary  was  regarded  by  the  Catholic  States  of  Europe 
as  the  rightful  claimant  of  the  English  throne,  being  a  grandniece 
of  Henry  VIII. ;  she  assumed,  therefore,  the  arms  and  title  of 
Queen  of  England.  When  she  returned  to  Scotland  her  husband 
was  murdered,  and  some  months  later  she  married  the  Earl  of 
Bothwell,  the  principal  author  of  the  crime.  The  Protestant  Scots, 
already  hating  her  on  account  of  her  reHgion,  took  her  prisoner, 
and  forced  her  to  dismiss  Bothwell,  and  to  resign  the  crown  to  her 
infant  son,  James  VI.  She  fled  into  England,  and  threw  herself 
upon  the  protection  of  Elizabeth,  her  deadly  enemy.  But  Eliza- 
beth, afraid  of  her  claims  for  the  English  throne,  retained  the  un- 
happy Mary  a  prisoner,  let  her  languish  nineteen  years  in  captivity, 
prevented  her  reconciliation  with  the  Scots,  and  treated  every 
attempt  of  the  prisoner  to  escape  from  her  fetters  as  a  crime. 
When  the  fanatic  Babington  finally  attempted  to  deliver  Mary  by 
kilHng  her  rival,  the  parliament  passed  an  act  authorizing  her  trial. 
She  was  accused  by  her  enemies  of  having  been  cognizant  of  the 
crime,  and,  without  being  convicted,  she  was  hastily  beheaded 
(1587  A.  D.)  Elizabeth  was  compelled,  according  to  the  demand 
of  the  nation,  to  declare  James  VI.,  son  of  Mary,  her  successor. 
He  succeeded  with  the  title  of  James  I.  England  and  Scotland 
were  thus  united  under  one  sovereign,  and  henceforth  the  two 
countries  received  the  common  designation  of  "Great  Britain." 

But  what  of  her  political  maxims  ?  What  of  reading  the  Bible,  and  of 
conversing  on  religion  ?  What  is  the  darkest  stain  of  her  history  ?  How  did 
the.  Catholic  States  regard  the  claim  of  Mary  to  the  English  throne  ?  Why  ? 
What  did  she  assume  ?  What  of  her  husband  in  Scotland  ?  Whom  did  she 
marry  after  his  death  ?  What  did  the  Scots  force  her  to  do  ?  Whose  protection 
did  she  ask  for  ?  How  did  Elizabeth  deal  with  her  ?  How  long  was  Mary  her 
prisoner?  What  did  Elizabeth  prevent?  How  did  she  treat  every  attempt  of 
the  prisoner  to  escape  ?  What  act  did  the  parliament  pass  when  Babington 
attempted  to  deliver  Mary  ?  Of  what  did  her  enemies  accuse  her  ?  Was  she 
convicted  ?  What  was  her  fate  ?  Whom  did  Elizabeth  declare  her  successor  ? 
Under  what  king  were  England  and  Scotland  united  ?  Under  what  common  des- 
ignation ? 


188 

During  the  government  of  Elizabeth  Francis  Drake  sailed 
around  the  earth  (15 77-1580  A.  D.)  Since  Magellan,  nobody  had 
ventured  on  such  an  enterprise. 

Charles  I.,  the  son  of  James,  immediately  after  his  accession, 
came  into  conflict  with  the  parliament,  "which  he  suddenly  dissolved 
because  it  refused  to  vote  the  supplies  demanded  by  him.  He  then 
convoked  a  second,  third  and  fourth  parliament,  and  also  dissolved 
each  one  of  them  for  the  same  reason.  Meanwhile,  in  various 
illegal  ways,  he  levied  money  without  the  consent  of  parliament. 
His  chief  political  counselor  was  the  earl  of  Strafford,  the  most 
formidable  enemy  of  the  liberties  of  the  people,  and  his  adviser  in 
ecclesiastical  affairs  was  archbishop  Laud.  His  attempt  to  introduce 
the  Episcopal  form  of  worship  into  Scotland  (1637  A.  D.)  drove  the 
Scotch  to  open  rebellion,  and  they  immediately  covenanted  to 
defend  the  religion,  the  laws  and  the  liberties  of  their  country. 
After  eleven  years  (1640  A.  D.)  he  again  convoked  a  parliament,  but 
the  House  of  Commons,  instead  of  listening  to  his  demands  for 
supplies,  began  with  presenting  to  him  the  public  grievances,  under 
three  heads,  viz.,  of  privileges  of  which  parliament  had  been  de- 
prived, of  illegal  taxes,  and  of  violence  done  to  the  cause  of  religion. 
Not  long  afterwards  Strafford  and  Laud  were  sent  to  the  Tower  on 
several  charges.  The  former  was  brought  to  trial  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  and  was  condemned  and  beheaded.  Five  years  later  Laud 
suffered  the  same  fate. 

The  difficulties  between  the  king  and  parliament  at  length 
reached  such  a  cHmax  that  he  left  London  (1642  A.  D.),  resolving 
to  stake  his  claims  on  the  hazards  of  war.  The  adherents  of  parlia- 
ment were  not  unprepared  for  the  contest.  On  the  king's  side  were 
ranged  most  of  the  nobility,  called  "  cavaliers ;"  on  that  of  parliament, 
Puritans  (Presbyterians  and  Independents),  and  other  Dissenters, 
called  "roundheads,"  from  their  practice  of  cropping  the  hair. 
Chief  commanders  of  the  parliamentary  army  were  the  earl  of 
Essex,  Lord  Fairfax  and  Oliver  Cromwell,  head  of  the  Independents. 
The  war  was  carried  on  for  several  years  with  varied  success,  but 


Who,  under  the  government  of  Elizabeth,  sailed  around  the  earth  ?  How 
many  parliaments  did  Charles  I.  dissolve?  Why?  Who  were  his  two  coun- 
selors? Why  did  the  Scots  rebel?  What  did  they  covenant?  What  three 
grievances  did  the  new  parliament  present  to  the  king  ?  What  of  Strafford  and 
Laud  ?  What  did  the  king  at  length  hazard  ?  Who  was  on  the  king's  side  ?  Who 
on  that  of  parliament  ?  Who  were  the  chief  commanders  of  the  parliamentary 
army  ? 


189 

finally  the  battle  of  Naseby,  northeast  of  London,  gained  by  the 
parliamentary  forces,  decided  the  contest.  Charles  threw  himself 
into  the  hands  of  his  Scotch  subjects  >  but  the  latter  treated  him  as 
a  prisoner,  and  delivered  him  up  to  the  commissioners  of  parliament. 
Under  the  influence  of  Cromwell,  the  House  of  Commons  instituted 
a  high  court  of  justice  to  try  the  king  for.  treason,  which,  on  the 
charge  of  having  levied  war  against  the  parliament,  condemned  him 
to  death  (1649  A.  D).  The  principal  cause  of  his  downfall  was 
the  duplicity  and  insincerity  with  which  he  acted  in  his  public 
character.  Such  was  his  want  of  fidelity  in  his  engagements  that 
parliament  could  never  confide  in  his  promises. 

The  Scots  took  no  part  in  the  trial  of  the  king,  and  after  his 
death  proclaimed  his  son,  Charles  IL,  their  sovereign ;  but  the  royal 
army  was  entirely  defeated  in  the  desperate  battle  of  Worcester 
(165 1  A.  D.);  Charles  escaped  with  difficulty.  Under  the  controlling 
influence  of  Cromwell,  the  House  of  Commons  abolished  the 
monarchy  and  the  House  of  Lords,  estabfished  a  republican  govern- 
ment called  the  Commonwealth  of  England^  and  bestowed  the  title 
and  office  of  Protector  on  Cromwell  (1653  A.  D.) 

g  82.     Northern    Realms.     Sweden.     Gustavus    Vasa. 

Prussia. 

Charles  I.,  king  of  Denmark,  and  brother-in-law  of  Charles  V., 
according  to  the  union  of  Calmar  (see  §  58),  reclaimed  the  govern- 
ment of  Sweden  which  his  father  had  lost.  But  the  country  hated 
him  on  account  of  his  cruelty.  Favored  by  the  anathema  of  the 
pope,  he  subdued  it  by  force  of  arms  (1520  A.  D.),  and,  during  the 
festivities  of  the  coronation,  caused  six  hundred  of  the  grandees  to 
be  seized  and  executed.  Gustavus  Vasa,  whose  father  and  brother- 
in-law  lost  their  lives  in  this  slaughter,  escaped  from  the  prison  in 
Denmark,  to  which  the  tyrant  had  dragged  him  and  other  hostages. 
He  went  into  the  service  of  the  drovers,  came  with  them  to- 
Liibeck,  and   from  there   to  Sweden.     Here   he  passed  the  nights- 

In  what  battle  was  the  contest  decided  ?  Where  did  the  king  seek  refuge  ? 
What  did  the  Scotch  do  ?  W^hat  did  the  House  of  Commons  institute  ?  What 
was  the  verdict  of  the  court  ?  What  was  the  principal  cause  of  the  downfall  of 
Charles  ?  Whom  did  the  Scots  proclaim  their  king  ?  With  what  result  ?  What 
did  the  House  of  Commons  abolish,  and  what  establish  ?  Who  became  Pro- 
tector of  the  realm  ?  \  82.  What  country  did  Christian  II.  reclaim  ?  Why  did 
the  country  hate  him  ?  How  did  he  then  proceed  ?  Give  a  proof  of  his  perfidy 
and  cruelty.     What  hostage  escaped  from  prison  ? 


190 

sometimes  in  fields  of  rye,  sometimes  in  the  woods,  for  he  was  pro- 
scribed. He  then  entered  into  the  service  of  a  rich  miner,  but  soon 
had  to  fly  again  from  Christian's  spies.  After  having  escaped  from 
many  other  dangers,  he  came  to  the  vahant  mountaineers  of  Dale- 
carha,  represented  to  them  the  adversity  under  which  their  native 
country  was  suffering,  reminded  them  of  the  heroic  deeds  of  their 
ancestors,  and  sought  'to  encourage  them,  with  his  assistance,  to 
deUver  it  from  the  bondage  of  the  despot.  They  were  at  first 
undetermined,  and  permitted  him  to  depart  without  granting  the 
desired  aid.  But  when  they  received  new  reports  of  the  cruelty  of 
Christian,  they  sent  couriers  after  him,  who  overtook  him  on  his 
flight  to  Norway,  and  he  returned  in  triumph.  They  began,  under 
his  command,  to  fight  the  king,  and,  aided  by  the  Hansa,  everywhere 
defeated  his  troops.  Gustavus  was  elected  governor.  He  besieged 
Stockholm.  At  last,  when  the  Danes  themselves  deposed  the  des- 
pot, that  city  also  capitulated,  and  Gustavus  was  universally  declared 
kmg  of  Sweden  (1523  A.  D.)  He  estabHshed  the  Protestant 
religion,  received  also  the  delegates  of  the  townships  and  peasantry 
into  the  States- General,  and  promoted  arts  and  sciences,  commerce 
and  maritime  power. 

Albert  of  Brandenburg,  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order  in 
Prussia,  advised  by  Luther,  renounced  the  doctrine  of  the  papacy, 
then  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  king  of  Poland  (1525  A.  D.),  by 
which  he  obtained  Prussia  as  a  Pohsh  fief,  and  introduced  the 
Reformation  into  this  country. 


SEOOND  CHAPTER-HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 


1 83.    The    Protestant    and  Catholic   Church.     Synod   of 
Trent.     Order   of  the  Jesuits. 

Luther's  doctrine  spread  through  a  large  part  of  Germany, 
especially  in  Saxony,  Wiirtemberg,  Mecklenburg,  Brandenburg, 
Denmark,  and  also  in  Sweden.  In  Austria,  Bohemia,  Hungaria  and 
Polonia  it  also  had  many  adherents. 

The  reformed  religion,  according  to  the  assertions  of  Zwingli 

Give  an  account  of  Vasa's  wanderings.  What  of  the  Dalecarlians  ?  Whom 
did  they  fight  ?  Who  aided  them  ?  With  what  success  ?  What  of  Gustavus  ? 
What  was  he  declared  ?  How  did  he  rule  ?  Who  advised  Albert  of  Branden- 
burg to  renounce  popery  ?  With  whom  did  he  conclude  a  treaty  ?  Under  what 
limitation  did  he  obtain  Prussia  ?  What  faith  did  he  introduce  ?  |  83.  Through 
what  countries  did  Luther's  doctrine  spread  ?  Through  which  the  Reformed  faith  ? 


191 

and  Calvin,  penetrated  from  Switzerland  into  France,  and  the  coun- 
tries bordering  the  Rhine,  as  far  as  Holland  and  Scotland.  In 
England  the  High  Episcopal  Church  became  predominant,  retain- 
ing the  ecclesiastical  government  and  most  of  the  rites  of  the 
Catholic  Church. 

Soon  differences  arose  between  the  new  denominations  of  the 
Church.  Luther  already  bitterly  opposed  Zwingli's  view  regarding 
the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  endeavor  of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  to 
arrange  a  religious  conference  between  them  was  fruitless.  By 
Luther's  obstinacy  every  attempt  at  an  amicable  compromise  was 
frustrated.  Neither  did  he  keep  the  promise  of  mutual  friendship 
with  which  they  had  parted.  He  wrote  with  bitterness  against 
Zwingli.  These  internal  quarrels  even  caused  bloodshed  in  some 
places,  e.  g.,  in  Holland.  The  Presbyterians,  who  were  also  fight- 
ing for  political  liberty,  were  violently  persecuted,  many  imprisoned, 
others  banished  or,  like  the  noble-minded  Olden  Barneveld,  exe- 
cuted. During  the  reign  of  Queen  EHzabeth,  187  Catholics  were 
ripped  up  and  boiled  alive.  Henry  VIII.  and  Calvin  were  also 
cruel  (see  §  78  and  §  81). 

The  state  of  the  Catholic  Church  grew  worse  and  worse,  and 
the  council  of  Trent  did  not  remedy  it.  The  synod  lasted  eight 
years  in  all.  It  was  evident  that  its  decrees  only  tended  to  enlarge 
the  papal  power,  and  to  humble  the  Protestants,  against  whom  it 
incessantly  hurled  its  anathemas. 

The  life  of  the  popes  also  continued  to  be  the  same  as  before. 
Alexander  VI.  (1492-1503  A.  D.)  was  the  most  cruel  of  all  popes, 
and  an  outcast  of  mankind.  He,  his  son  Caesar,  and  his  daughter, 
Lucretia  Borgia,  dispatched  their  enemies  by  poison  and  poniard. 
He  aided  the  ambitious  son  to  enlarge  his  dominion  in  Italy. 
Finally  he  perished  himself  by  the  poison  he  had  prepared  for 
another.  He  instituted  the  censorship  of  books.  Leo  X.  was  the 
notorious  adversary  of  Reformation.  Paul  III.  anathematized  the 
heretics,  and  sent  troops  against  them.  Jules  III.  appointed  a 
keeper    of  monkeys   as  a  cardinal,  because    he    was  his   favorite. 

What  Church  in  England  r*  What  rite  of  the  Church  caused  a  difference 
between  Luther  and  Zwingli  ?  How  did  the  former  behave  towards  Zwingli  ? 
How  were  the  Presbyterians  in  Holland,  who  were  also  fighting  for  political 
liberty,  treated  ?  What  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Henry  VIII.  and  Calvin  ?  What 
was  the  state  of  the  Catholic  Church  ?  The  life  of  the  popes  ?  What  of  Alex- 
ander VI.?  What  did  he  institute  ?  What  of  Leo  X.  ?  Paul  III.  ?  Jules  III.? 
Paul  IV.? 


192 

Paul  IV.  was  ambitious,  and  enlarged  the  list  of  the  prohibited 
books.  Sixtus  V.,  though  enlightened,  was  cruel  and  despotic. 
Gregory  VIII.  celebrated  the  St.  Bartholomew  massacre. — A  new 
institute  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  this  period  is  the  Order  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  Ignatius  of  Loyola,  a  Spanish  nobleman,  when  a 
young  man,  did  miHtary  service  in  the  army  of  Ferdinand  the 
CathoHc.  He  was  wounded  during  a  siege,  and  fell  sick.  Being 
confined  to  his  bed,  he  excited  his  imagination,  already  disposed  to 
fanaticism,  even  more  by  reading  odd  legends.  Then  he  instituted 
the  Society  of  Jesus  (1540  A.  D.),  the  members  of  which,  besides 
the  three  usual  monastic  vows,  celibacy,  poverty  and  obedience,, 
pledged  themselves  to  unconditionally  obey  the  pope,  especially  in 
matters  of  heresy  and  infidelity.  Their  principal  object  was  to 
combat  Protestant  doctrine,  and  to  suppress  mental  liberty.  The 
General  of  the  Order  resided  in  Rome.  They  entered  public  life 
in  a  thousand  different  forms.  They  made  their  appearance  as 
teachers  of  the  youth,  as  preachers,  nurses  of  the  sick,  inquisitors  of 
faith,  missionaries,  confessors,  ministers  of  States,  and  even  as 
tradesmen.  Among  the  laymen  they  also  organized  fraternities, 
which  even  princes  and  their  sons  joined.  Their  chief  aim  was  to 
captivate  rich  young  men.  The  fortunes  of  such  victims  became 
the  prey  of  their  society.  Their  Order  spread  rapidly.  It  was 
admitted  into  all  CathoHc  countries;  it  entered  even  Hindostan,. 
China  and  Japan.  The  number  of  its  members  was  very  consider- 
a;ble.  In  the  eighteenth  century  it  numbered  at  one  time  twenty- 
two  thousand.  In  the  council  of  Trent  it  carried  the  issue.  In 
Asia  it  established  the  Inquisitional  Tribunal.  In  Germany  its  prin- 
cipal seats  were  Munich  and  Vienna ;  Bavaria  was  called  its  para- 
dise. It  fostered  the  belief  in  miracles,  arranged  painful  exercises 
of  penance  for  the  stupid  populace,  and  permitted  the  rich  and  pow- 
erful everything  they  longed  for.  Later,  the  education  of  the  Cath- 
olic youth  in  the  higher  institutes  was  secured  by  the  Jesuits, 
whereby  they  obtained  the  greatest  influence  in  civil  society.    They 

Sixtus  v.?  Gregory  XIIL?  What  new  institute  of  the  Catholic  Church 
came  into  existence  ?  Who  was  the  founder  of  the  Order  i  Relate  some  facts 
of  his  life  when  he  was  a  young  man.  What  obligations  do  the  Jesuits  take 
besides  the  usual  vows  ?  What  was  their  object  ?  In  what  forms  did  they  enter 
public  life  ?  What  did  they  organize  among  laymen  ?  Whom  did  they  chiefly 
try  to  captivate  ?  Why  ?  What  about  their  spreading?  What  was  their  number 
at  one  time  ?  What  did  they  establish  in  Asia?  What  were  their  principal  seats 
in  Germany  ?  What  did  they  foster  ?  What  did  they  arrange  for  the  populace? 
What  did  they  permit  to  the  rich  ?     What  institutes  did  they  seize  ? 


193 

crept  into  the  confidence  of  the  sovereigns,  became  their  confessors 
and  counselors,  and  soon,  also,  the  governors  of  State  affairs. 
Though  praise  for  great  scholarship  cannot  be  withheld  from  indi- 
vidual members  of  their  Order,  yet,  on  the  whole,  their  perform- 
ances were  far  behind  the  demands  of  their  age.  They  were  ene- 
mies of  enlightenment,  of  political  and  religious  liberty.  Their 
moral  code  permitted  the  use  of  all  foul  means,  even  regicide,  in 
order  to  obtain  sought-for  ends.  They  possessed  immense  riches, 
which  they  acquired  in  divers  ways,  even  by  commercial  business. 

g  84.     Arts  and  Sciences.     Raphael.    Shakespeare.     Cer- 
vantes.   Galileo.     Nicolas  Copernicus.    Correc- 
tion of  the  Calendar. 

While  the  arts  had  already  attained  a  high  degree  of  accom- 
plishment, especially  in  Italy,  in  sciences  a  great  deal  was  yet  to  be 
desired.  In  Italy  flourished  the  great  painters,  Michael  Angelo 
Buonarotti,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  whose  most  celebrated  picture  is  the 
"Lord's  Supper;"  Allegris  Correggio,  Guido  Reni,  Titian,  and, 
more  than  all,  Raphael  Sanzi  d'Urbino,  called  by  his  contempo- 
raries, "  the  divine."  He  was  recommended  to  Pope  Julius  II., 
who  desired  several  apartments  in  the  Vatican  to  be  embellished  by 
pictures.  Thus,  by  his  masterly  pencil,  a  series  of  large  historic 
pictures  were  created,  of  which  every  one  occupies  one  wall,  every 
figure  being  of  full  length.  He  also  painted  much  for  Leo  X.  He 
alone  was  sought  to  paint  everything ;  but  this  demand  upon  him 
surpassing  his  strength,  he  at  last  outlined  only  the  drawings,  and 
left  the  finishing  to  be  done  by  his  scholars.  In  this  way  the 
renowned  wall-paintings  (lodges)  originated  in  a  gallery  of  the 
Vatican.  His  last  work  was  the  transfiguration  of  Christ  on  the 
Mount  of  Tabor.  He  died  when  only  thirty-seven  years  old  (1520 
A.  D.)  His  funeral  was  the  occasion  of  deep  mourning  for  the 
whole  city  of  Rome,  in  which  the  most  excellent  men  shared.  He 
was  honored  by  a  monument  worthy  of  his  name.  Michael 
Angelo  was  also  architect;    his   most   celebrated   structure   is   the 

What  did  they  become  at  the  courts  of  princes  ?  What  of  their  scholarship  ? 
Were  they  promoters  of  enlightenment  and  liberty  ?  What  did  their  moral  code 
permit?  How  did  they  acquire  riches  ?  ■§84.  Italy.  Painters  ?  Which  is  the  most 
celebrated  picture  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci?  \Vhich  painter  was  called  the  divine  ? 
How  did  the  historic  pictures  in  the  Vatican  originate?  How  the  lodges? 
What  was  Raphael's  last  work  ?  How  was  his  funeral  celebrated  ?  How  was 
his  memory  honored  ?     Who  was  also  architect  ? 

(18) 


194 

cupola  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  in  Rome.  In  the  Netherlands, 
Paul  Rembrandt  and  the  great  Rubens  painted  exceedingly  well ; 
in  Germany,  Albert  Diirer,  Lucas  Kranach,  and  John  Holbein, 
whos^  "  Dance  of  Death,"  in  Basle,  is  yet  admired ;  in  France, 
Poussin,  etc. 

To  the  most  excellent  poets  belonged :  In  Italy,  Ariosto,  who 
composed  the  charming  comic  epopee,  "II  furioso  Rolando;  "  ami 
Torquato  Tasso,  who  wrote  the  ''Jerusalem  DeHvered;"  in  Eng- 
land, Milton,  celebrated  for  his  poem,  "Paradise  Lost;  "  Dryden, 
and  the  incomparable*  William  Shakespeare  (t  1616  A.  D.)  The 
subjects  of  his  great  tragedies  are  partly  historical  events  (Henry 
IV.,  Richard  III.),  and  partly  events  of  human  Hfe  (Macbeth,  King 
Lear,  Hamlet,  Othello,  Romeo  and  Juliet.)  Of  his  many  come- 
dies, "A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  and  "The  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor  "  are  best  known.  The  Spanish  poet,  Michael  Cervantes, 
represented  in  his  comical,  satirical  novel,  "  Don  Quixote,"  a  vis- 
ionary who  mist;ikes  the  reality  and  is  fighting  for  imaginary  con- 
ceptions. Dramatic  poets :  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon. — Portu- 
gal :  Camoens,  author  of  the  "  Lusiad,"  was  the  best  poet.  He  cel- 
ebrates the  chief  events  in  the  history  of  Portugal,  rei)resenting  all 
the  great  achievements  of  Portuguese  heroism.  His  poem  was 
translated  into  the  best  modern  languages.  The  German  master- 
singers,  as  they  were  called,  formed  special  societies,  and  were 
mostly  workmen.  The  most  productive  poet  among  them  was 
Hans  Sachs,  a  shoemaker,  in  Nuremberg.  In  Switzerland,  Nicolas 
d  Berne,  and  Jacob  Ruef,  of  Ziirich,  excelled  in  poetry. 

Among  the  great  number  of  scholars,  are  prominent :  Melanch- 
ton,  who  promoted  the  study  of  ancient  classic  literature;  Luther, 
whose  translation  of  the  Bible  is  full  of  vigor  and  euphony;  the 
naturalists,  Conrad  Gessner  and  Agricola;  the  astronomers,  Nicolas 
Copernicus  of  Thorn,  and  Galileo.  The  former  demonstrated  that 
the  sun  is  a  fixed  star,  and  that  the  earth  revolves  around  it  regu- 
larly.   Galileo,  whose  views  were  the  same,  was  therefore  accused  of 

What  part  of  St.  Peter's  church  did  he  construct  ? — Painters  in  the  Nether- 
lands? In  Germany?  In  France?  /\Wj.  In  Italy  1  Wliat  poem  did  Ariosto 
compose?  What  Torquato  Tasso?  \\\  Ett gland  1  What  did  Milton  compose? 
What  of  Shakespeare  ?  Name  some  of  his  most  celebrated  tragedies  and  com- 
edies. Who  was  the  greatest  Spanish  poet  ?  What  novel  did  he  write  ?  What 
is  Its  subject?  What  of  the  German  master-singers?  Which  was  the  most 
productive  ?  What  poets  in  Swizerland  ?  Sr/iolars.  In  Germany  ?  What  about 
Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible?  Astronomers  1  What  did  Nicolas  Copernicus 
demonstrate  ?     How  was  Galileo  treated  by  the  Jesuits  and  the  Inquisition  ? 


195 

heresy  ])y  the  monks  and  Jesuits,  and  arraigned  at  the  Inquisitional 
Triljunal  (1633  A.  D.)  After  having  languished  several  months  in 
])rison  he  was  compelled,  on  bended  knees,  to  forswear  the  truth  he 
had  taught.  When  rising,  he  stamped  with  his  foot,  murmuring  the 
words:  "And  still  it  is  moving!"  Then  he  was  sentenced  to  be 
put,  for  an  indefinite  term,  into  the  dungeon  of  the  Inquisition,  and 
his  doctrine  condemned,  because  contradicting  the  Bible  (Joshua  X., 
12,  13.)  It  is  probable  that  the  unfortunate  old  man  was  also  put 
to  the  rack. 

Pope  Gregory  XIII.  caused  the  Julian  calendar  to  be  cor- 
rected (1582  A.  D.)  Under  JuUus  Caesar  the  solar  year,  which 
only  contains  365  days,  five  hours  and  about  forty-eight  minutes, 
was  assumed  somewhat  too  great.  This  error  in  calculation 
amounted,  at  the  time  of  that  pope,  already  to  ten  days.  Gregory 
ordered  them  to  be  omitted  in  the  chronology.  Likewise,  three 
intercalary  days  should  be  omitted  in  every  four  hundred  years. 
The  Catholics  immediately  accepted  the  amended  calendar.  The 
Protestants  refused  for  a  long  time,  but  finally  accepted  it  (1700 
A.  D.)  The  Greeks  and  Russians  are  still  reckoning  according  to  the 
ancient  calendar,  and  are  already  twelve  days  behind  the  correct 
chronology. 

EXERCISES. 

Biographies:  Luther,  (a)  as  friar  in  the  convent;  (l>)  as  reformer,  espe- 
cially as  antagonist  of  the  indulgences,  and  at  the  diet  of  Worms.  Zwingli,  (a) 
as  parson  in  Einsiedein;  {d)  as  reformer;  (c)  his  death.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  (a) 
reasons  of  his  war  against  ICmperor  Ferdinand  II.;  {l>)  his  victorious  course;  (c) 
his  victory  at  Lcipsic;  {(/)  his  death.  Henry  IV.,  (a)  as  prince  of  Navarre;  (<5) 
as  king. — Describe  the  discovery  of  America;  the  battle  of  Liitzen;  secession  of 
the  Netherlands;  the  St.  Hartholomew.  What  heroes  distinguished  themselves 
in  the  thirty  years'  war,  and  at  the  delivery  of  the  Netherlands  ?  When  and 
where  were  the  Swedes  victorious  ?  Name  the  greatest  reformers;  the  most 
Tenowned  discoverers  of  land;  the  principal  painters  and  poets  of  this  period. — 
Describe  the  destruction  of  the  '♦  Invincible  Armada."  Give  the  names  of  some 
North  American  settlements  of  this  period.  What  memorable  events  distin- 
guish the  years  1519,  1523,  1546,  1589?  The  years  1498  and  1598?  1529  and 
1629?  1530  and  1630?  1532  and  1632?  1548  and  1648?  How  many  years 
elapsed  between  Luther's  lirst  appearance  until  the  outbreak  of  the  thirty  years' 
war  ?     In  what  year  did  Raphael  and  Shakespeare  die  ? 

What  was  he  compelled  to  forswear  ?  What  words  did  he  murmur  ?  What 
sentence  did  the  Inquisition  pass  on  him  ?  Explain  the  correction  of  the  calen- 
dar under  Gregory  XIII.  How  many  days  was  the  year  1582  behind  the  true 
chronology  ?  How  was  this  error  amended  ?  Who  did  not  accept  the  correct 
calendar  ? 


196 

EIGHTH  PERIOD, 


FrotTj  the  Westphaliaq  Peace  to  the   Frencl^  Revolutioq. 

Unlimited  Monarchy  and  Europeaq  Equilibriunq. 

Frorri  1648  to  1789  A.   D. 


FIKST  OHAPTER-POLITIOAL  HISTOEY. 


§  8S.    Austria.     Sobieski  of  Poland.     Maria  Theresa. 
War  of   Succession.    Joseph  II. 

Leopold  I.  was  a  drowsy  sovereign,  conserving  antiquated  in- 
stitutions, a  manageable  instrument  of  the  ministers,  confessors  and 
Jesuits,  and  an  enemy  of  religious  and  political  liberty.  Having 
ceded  some  fortresses  on  the  frontier  of  Hungary  to  the  Turks  with 
whom  he  \yaged  war,  many  Hungarians,  irritated  thereby,  because 
these  fortresses  were  regarded  as  bulwarks  of  their  country,  con- 
spired against  him,  but  the  conspiracy  having  been  detected,  they 
were  partly  executed,  and,  the  whole  nation  being  presumed  to  be 
guilty,  many  others,  especially  Protestants,  punished.  Indignant  at 
this  tyranny  they  took  up  arms  (1678  A.  D.);  the  Turks  supported 
them,  and  besieged  Vienna  (1683  A.  D.)  Leopold  had  to  flee. 
The  city  defended  itself  with  a  small  garrison  and  an  auxiliary  corps 
of  the  citizens  and  students  during  two  months  against  200,000 
enemies,  till  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  uniting  with  the  impe- 
rial army,  defeated  the  barbarians  before  the  walls,  and  forced  them 
to  withdraw.  Prince  Eugene  vanquished  the  Turks  also  (1699  A.  D.) 
and  compelled  them  to  conclude  peace.  The  discontented  Hun- 
garians rose  again  (1701  A.  D.),  and,  finally,  by  their  persevering 
struggles,  regained  almost  all  their  lost  liberties  (1711  A.  D.)  Leo- 
pold and  his  sons  waged  war  also  against  Louis  XIV.  (see  §  87). 

One  of  these  sons,  Charles  VI.,  arranged  in  favor  of  his  daughter, 
Maria   Theresa,   a   solemn  ordinance    of  succession,    called    ''  the 


§85.  What  was  the  character  of  Leopold  I.?  How  did  he  irritate  the 
Hungarians  ?  How  did  he  punish  them  ?  Give  a  description  of  the  siege  of 
Vienna.  Who  delivered  the  city?  Who  vanquished  the  Turks  also?  What 
was  the  final  result  of  the  sedition  of  the  Hungarians  ? 


197 

Pragmatic  Sanction,"  by  which,  in  default  of  a  male  heir,  the  whole 
Austrian  monarchy  should  devolve  upon  the  female  lineage.  This 
ordinance  was  accepted  by  the  States- General  of  the  monarchy, 
and  approved  by  the  European  sovereigns ;  Bavaria  alone  rejected 
it,  claiming  to  have  the  next  right  to  the  Austrian  inheritance.  But 
Charles  was  scarcely  cold  in  death  (1740  A.  D.)  before  many  other 
princes  claimed  the  rich  heritage ;  Spain  and  Bavaria  demanded  the 
whole,  and  Frederic  II.,  king  of  Prussia,  some  Silesian  dukedoms. 
A  universal  war  broke  out  against  Maria  Theresa,  and  was  opened 
immediately  by  Frederic. 

Maria  Theresa  presented  herself,  with  her  infant  son  in  her  arms, 
in  the  diet  of  the  Hungarian  nobles,  and,  having  first  sworn  to  pro- 
tect their  independence,  with  tears  implored  their  aid  (1741  A.  D.) 
The  swords  of  the  Hungarians  flashed  in  the  air,  and  their  unani- 
mous acclamation  was :  "  Let  us  die  for  our  sovereign,  Maria 
Theresa !  "  From  all  sides  the  Hungarians  drew  near  and  overran 
Eavaria,  whose  sovereign,  Charles  VII.,  had  already  conquered  a 
part  of  Austria,  and  had  been  proclaimed  king  in  Bohemia  and 
emperor  in  Germany.  Maria  Theresa  ceded  Silesia  to  Frederic  11.', 
made  peace  with  him  (1742  A.  D.),  and  gained  the  alliance  of 
Saxony,  England  and  other  countries.  Then  she  energetically  con- 
tinued the  war  against  Bavaria  and  France.  Charles  lost  his  land. 
Meanwhile  Frederic  II.,  anxious  for  his  conquests,  renewed 
the  war,  conquering  Bohemia  and  Saxony,  and  Maria  Theresa  left 
him  Silesia  for  the  second  time.  War  with  the  other  enemies  con- 
tinued. Enormous  armies  were  fighting  each  other ;  battle  followed 
battle ;  in  Italy,  in  Germany,  and  in  the  Netherlands,  blood  flowed 
copiously.  Beyond  Europe  war  was  also  raging.  Russia  also 
entered  the  lists  of  combat  for  Maria  Theresa.  At  that  time  the 
Turkish  Sultan  admonished  the  Christian  sovereigns  to  make  peace. 
This  was  finally  brought  about  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748  A.  D.),  Maria 
Theresa  retaining  almost  her  whole  heritage.  She,-  however,  waged 
a  seven  years'  war,  especially  against  Frederic  II.  (see  §  86). 

The  noblest-hearted  of  all  Austrian  sovereigns  was  her  son, 
Joseph  II.  ( 1 780-1 790  A.   D.)     He  undertook  many  important  re- 

What  do  the  words  "  Pragmatic  Sanction  "  mean  ?  Why  did  Charles  VI.  arrange 
it  ?  Was  it  heeded  by  the  European  sovereigns  ?  What  did  wSpain  demand  ? 
Bavaria  ?  What  Frederic  II.  ?  Who  supported  Maria  Theresa  ?  What  country 
did  she  cede  to  Frederic  11.  ?  What  sovereigns  were  her  allies  ?  Who  admon- 
ished the  combatants  to  make  peace  ?  What  final  success  had  she  ?  Who  was 
her  noble-hearted  son  ? 


198 

forms,  which  were  certainly  all  well  meant,  though  in  some  points 
too  rash.  He  improved  the  military  concerns,  and  established  a 
wise  national  economy,  not  only  living  moderately  himself,  but 
diminishing  also  the  expenses  of  his  court,  and  limiting  the  arbi- 
trary power  of  the  public  officers.  He  made  milder  laws  for  capital 
crimes,  and  abolished  capital  punishment.  He  fostered  commerce 
and  industry,  and  promoted  agriculture.  But  his  greatest  merit  was 
his  religious  toleration,  his  care  for  enlightenment,  and  his  love  for 
the  citizen  and  peasant. 

He  fought  courageously  for  right  and  enlightenment,  against  the 
prejudices  of  the  multitude,  and  against  the  prerogatives  of  the 
higher  castes.  He  granted  to  the  Protestants  and  the  Greeks  free 
exercise  of  reHgion,  and  protected  the  Jews  against  the  rigor  of 
barbarian  laws.  He  made  the  Catholic  Church  independent  from 
the  Holy  See,  and  abolished  a  great  number  of  convents,  the  prop- 
erty of  which  he  devoted  to  the  care  of  souls,  and  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  youth.  Lastly,  he  abrogated  censure,  and  granted 
general  liberty  of  thought. 

The  people  were  astonished  by  the  bold  reformer,  and  Pope 
Pius  VI.  did  an  unprecedented  thing.  He  went  himself  to  Vienna 
in  order  to  remonstrate.  But  Joseph  persisted  in  his  enactments. 
He  went  even  farther.  In  his  States  he  broke  the  yoke  of  servi- 
tude, abrogated  the  excessive  socage  service,  gave  the  tenants  a 
State-Attorney  against  the  oppression  of  the  landlords,  and  ordained 
equable  taxation. 

By  these  reforms  he  excited  the  nobility  and  priests  to  violent 
resistance,  and  the  low  populace  to  revolt.  They  declared  him  an 
enemy  to  religion,  and  accused  him  of  having  violated  the  constitu- 
tional rights  of  divers  lands.  Insurrections  broke  out  in  Hungary 
and  the  Lowlands,  and  the  latter  declared  themselves  independent 
of  Austria  (1789  A.  D.) 

§  86.     Prussia.     Frederic  II.     Seven  Years'  War.     Battles 
at  Rossbach  and  Lissa. 

Frederic  II.,  king  of  Prussia,  besides  carrying  on  the  Silesian 
wars,  waged  also  the  seven  years'  war  against  Austria.  Maria 
Theresa,  not  able  to  get  over  the  loss  of  Silesia,  concluded  a  secret 

Mention  some  of  his  reforms;  in  his  court;  with  regard  to  capital  crimes,  to 
commerce,  agriculture,  religious  toleration;  to  convents;  to  servitude  ;  to  taxa- 
tion. Who  opposed  his  reforms?  In  what  countries  did  insurrections  break 
out  ?  I  86.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  seven  years'  war  ?  Who  sided  with 
Maria  Theresa? 


alliance  with  most  of  the  German  States,  with  Sweden,  Russia  and 
even  France,  for  the  purpose  of  annihilating  Frederic.  England 
only  sided  with  the  latter.  But  the  plan  was  betrayed,  and  Frederic, 
anticipating  his  enemies,  invaded  Bohemia  and  Saxony,  and  com- 
pletely conquered  the  latter  country  (1756  A.  D.)  The  whole 
Saxon  army  was  captured  at  Pima.  During  the  next  year  Frederic 
was  defeated  at  Kolin,  and  his  brave  general,  Schwerin,  lost  his  life. 
The  Austrians  extended  their  raids  as  far  as  Berlin.  The  Swedes 
occupied  Pomerania,  the  Russians  ravaged  Prussia,  and  the  French 
also  advanced  upon  it.  Frederic  seemed  to  be  on  the  verge  of 
ruin ;  but  he  surprised  and  defeated  the  French  and  the  imperial 
army  of  66,000  men  at  Rossbach,  not  far  from  Merseburg,  with 
22,000  Prussians.  Only  the  Swiss  mercenaries  retreated  in  good 
order.  One  month  later,  he  gained,  with  the  same  army,  the 
greatest  of  his  victories  at  Lissa,  in  Silesia,  routing  80,000  Austrians, 
so  that  only  17,000  men  reached  Bohemia.  The  Russians  and 
Swedes  had  also  to  retreat.  In  the  third  year  of  the  war  he 
defeated  the  Russians  at  Zorndorf,  in  Brandenburg  (1758  A.  D.) 
The  two  following  campaigns  were  disastrous  to  him.  He  was 
completely  defeated  at  Kunnersdorf,  in  Brandenburg,  a  Prussian 
army  captured,*and  most  of  his  lands  were  conquered.  It  was  his 
good  fortune,  however,  that  Elizabeth,  empress  of  Russia,  died. 
Her  successor,  Peter  II.,  held  him  so  dear  that  he  gave  up  to  him 
the  Russian  troops  for  his  support  (1762  A.  D.)  He  was  soon  after 
killed,  but  Catharine  III.,  who  succeeded  him,  concluded  peace 
with  Prussia.  Frederic  expelled  the  enemies  from  his  lands.  The 
English  were  successfully  fighting  the  French  in  America,  Africa 
and  Asia,  and  thus  at  last  a  general  peace  followed,  ending  one  of  the 
bloodiest  wars  on  record.  The  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  in 
the  castle  of  Hubertsburg,  near  Leipsic  (1763  A.  D.)  Frederic 
retained  Silesia. 

He  endeavored  now  to  restore  prosperity  in  his  lands  by  distrib- 
uting grain  for  food  and  seed,  rebuilding  the  burned  villages,  found- 
ing  colonies,    and  in  special  regions  remitting  all  taxes,  etc.     In 

Who  with  Frederic  II.  ?  What  success  had  he  in  the  first  campaign  ?  What 
reverses  did  he  have  during  the  second  campaign  ?  What  success  did  he  have  at 
the  end  of  the  campaign  ?  In  what  two  battles  did  he  defeat  the  enemies  ?  What 
enemy  did  he  defeat  in  the  third  campaign  ?  How  did  he  succeed  in  the  two 
following  years  ?  What  was  then  his  good  fortune  ?  Who  concluded  peace  with 
him  ?  Where  was  general  peace  concluded  ?  What  country  did  he  hold  ?  How 
did  he  endeavor  tp  restore  prosperity  in  his  lands  ? 


200 

general,  he  took  praiseworthy  care  of  agriculture,  arts  and  manu- 
factures. He  amended  the  laws,  abolished  the  torture  and  other 
cruel  punishments  of  the  middle  ages,  increased  the  public  reve- 
nues, granted  liberty  of  conscience  and  of  the  press,  and  enjoyed 
the  intercourse  with  scholars.  He  worked  with  restless  assiduity, 
and  raised  Prussia  to  her  present  eminence.  He  governed  about 
fifty  years  (i  740-1 786  A.  D.) 

g  87.     France.     Louis  XIV.'s  Predominance  in    Europe. 
His  Wars.     Spanish  War  of  Succession.     Battle 
at  Blenheim.     Persecution  of  Prot- 
estants.    Louis    XV. 

Most  of  the  wars  of  conquest  were  waged  in  this  period  by 
Louis  XIV. — the  first  (1667-1668  A.  D.)  against  his  brother-in- 
law,  Charles  II.,  king  of  Spain,  because  he  claimed  some  lands  as  an 
heirloom  of  his  wife,  though  she  had  solemnly  resigned  her  heirship 
in  a  contract.  He  achieved  great  conquests,  but  was  soon  com- 
pelled by  the  alliance  of  England,  Holland  and  Sweden,  to  make 
peace. 

Resentful  against  Holland,  and  thinking  that  country  to  be  the 
principal  plotter  of  the  aUiance,  he  sent  his  great  Generals  Conde, 
Turenne,  Luxemburg  and  Vauban,  with  100,000  men,  against  the 
repubhc  (167 2- 1678  A.  D.)  He  was  supported  besides  by  Eng- 
land and  Sweden.  Holland  was  overrun  by  her  enemies,  and  the 
capital,  Amsterdam,  besieged.  Then  the  inhabitants  opened  their 
dykes,  making  the  sea  their  ally  by  letting  it  in,  and  their  great 
admiral,  Ruyter,  defeated  the  English-French  fleet.  Presently, 
Spam,  Lorraine,  Germany,  Austria  and  Denmark  also  took  arms 
against  Louis,  and  Ruyter  vanquished  three  more  times  the  hostile 
fleets.  Meanwhile,  Turenne  devastated  Germany  along  the  Rhine. 
At  last  Holland  disgracefully  deserted  her  allies  and  made  separate 
peace  with  Louis,  at  Nymegen  (1678  A.  D.),  by  which  treaty  all 
it  had  lost  was  again  recovered.  The  allies  of  Holland,  however, 
had  to  suffer  for  it.  Spain  lost  Franche-Comte,  the  duke  of  Lor- 
raine his  entire  domain,  and  the  German  enipire  several  cities. 

How  was  his  administration,  in  general  ?  How  long  did  he  govern  Prussia  ? 
<§  87.  Who  waged  the  most  wars  of  conquest  ?  Against  whom  did  he  wage  his 
first  war  ?  Why  ?  Who  compelled  him  to  make  peace  ?  Against  whom  did  he 
wage  the  second  war  ?  How  did  the  Dutch  defend  themselves  ?  What  great 
generals  did  he  have  ?  What  admiral  defeated  the  English-French  fleet  ?  What 
country  made  a  separate  peace  with  Louis  ?     Who  had  to  suffer  ? 


201 

Moreover,  Louis,  in  the  name  of  the  duchess  of  Orleans,  claimed 
a  share  of  the  heritage  of  her  brother,  the  prince-elector  of  the  Pa- 
latinate, though  she  had  expressly  resigned  her  claims ;  in  addition, 
he  wanted  to  appoint  an  archbishop  in  Cologne.  As  Germany  and 
the  pope  refused  the  prelate,  he  snatched  PhiHpsburg  from  the  em- 
pire and  Avignon  from  the  pope,  and  thus  the  German  war  was 
enkindled  (1688-1697  A.  D.)  Fighting  against  him  were  Ger- 
many, Austria,  the  pope.  Savoy,  England,  Holland  and  Denmark. 
Louis  was  left  alone  (only  Switzerland  permitted  its  mercenaries  to 
remain  in  his  service).  It  would  have  been  an  admirable  combat,  if 
he  had  waged  it  for  the  sacred  cause  of  right.  He  made  great  con- 
quests; nevertheless,  he  was  obliged,  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  to 
return  almost  all  of  the  conquered  lands  to.  the  enemies  (1697  A.  D.) 

He  fought  most  tenaciously  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession 
(i 701-17 14  A.  D.)  Charles  II.,  king  of  Spain,  was  childless.  The 
large  realm  was  claimed  by  Bavaria  and  Savoy,  but  especially  by 
Louis  XIV.,  in  the  name  of  his  grandson,  Philip  of  Anjou,  and  by 
Emperor  Leopold  I.  The  latter  had  the  next  right  to  the  heritage. 
As  Louis  had  married  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  PhiUp  of  Spain, 
he  had  renounced  all  claim  to  the  Spanish  crown,  either  for  himself 
or  his  successors.  When  England  mediated  a  treaty  of  partition 
between  the  parties  concerned,  Charles  II.,  provoked  by  these  arbi- 
trary proceedings,  designated  the  prince  of  Bavaria  as  the  universal 
heir;  but  the  latter  suddenly  died.  Charles  II.  then  wanted  to  give 
up  the  whole  heritage  to  prince  Charles,  Leopold's  son,  on  the  con- 
dition, however,  that  Leopold  should  send  his  son  with  an  army  to 
Spain ;  but  the  emperor  could  not  be  induced  to  do  so.  By  a  new 
treaty  of  partition,  Louis  would  leave  the  heritage  for  the  most  part 
to  the  Austrian  prince;  Leopold  also  rejected  this  proposal. 
Meanwhile  Charles  II.  died,  and  a  last  will  of  his  appeared,  which 
designated  Philip  of  Anjou  single  heir.  This  prince  immediately 
went  to  Spain  and  took  possession  of  the  country  (1701  A.  D.) 
Soon  Austria,  England,  Holland,  Prussia,  Portugal  and  Savoy 
declared  war  against  Louis ;  Bavaria  only  sided  •  with  him. 
Eugen  and  Marlborough,  the  great  generals  of  Austria  and 
England,    defeated   the   army    of    the    French    and    Bavarians   at 

What  of  his  German  war  ?  What  enemies  fought  against  him  ?  What  was 
the  result  of  this  war  ?  •  What  was  the  cause  of  the  Spanish  war  of  succession  ? 
Who  took  possession  of  Spain?  What  countries  were  his  enemies?  Who  sided 
with  him  ?  Where  was  he  defeated  ?    How  was  he  disposed  to  act  after  his  defeat  ? 


202 

Blenheim  (Hochstedt),  in  Bavaria,  the  greatest  battle  which 
had  occurred  for  200  years  (1704  A.  D.)  Added  to  this,  were 
a  severe  winter  and  a  want  of  bread  in  France.  Louis  be- 
came disposed  to  deliver  up  the  whole  heritage;  but  when  Aus- 
tria and  England  both  demanded  of  him  that  he  expel  his  grand- 
son from  Spain,  he  firmly  refused,  and  was  saved  by — a  pair  of  gloves 
belonging  to  Lady  Marlborough,  which  pleased  Queen  Anne,  and 
were  denied  her  by  the  lady.  She,  having  already  offended  the 
queen  several  times,  was  together  with  her  husband  disgraced,  and 
the  latter  lost  his  command ;  besides,  Emperor  Joseph  L,  Leopold's 
first-born  son,  died ;  his  brother  and  successor,  Emperor  Charles  VI. 
Avould,  by  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  heritage,  have  become  the 
overpowering  monarch  of  Europe.  Therefore  Anne  began  negotia- 
tions, and  Louis  concluded  peace  with  all  his  enemies  (17 13  A.  D.) 
The  emperor  and  Germany  assented  to  it  at  Rastadt  and  Baden 
(1714  A.  D.)  Philip  of  Anjou  remained  king  of  Spain;  Austria 
received  Naples,  Milan,  Sardinia  and  the  Spanish  Netherlands; 
Gibraltar  was  ceded  to  England.  Louis  still  waged  some  smaller 
wars  against  Holland.  According  to  the  decision  of  the  reunion 
chambers,  which  he  instituted  in  different  towns,  in  order  to  have  it 
settled  what  in  ancient  times  belonged  to  France,  he  took  away  part 
of  Luxemburg,  Brabant  and  Flanders  from  Holland,  Strasburg  from 
Germany,  and  defended  his  prey  by  war. 

He  cruelly  persecuted  the  Huguenots  in  France,  being  persuaded 
to  do  so  by  the  Jesuits  and  Madame  de  Maintenon,  whom  he  had 
elevated  by  a  secret  marriage  to  the  rank  of  his  wife.  They  were 
excluded  from  all  offices,  and  deprived  of  their  children ;  the  sick 
who  refused  to  turn  Cathohcs  lost  their  property,  and  were  sent  to 
the  galleys,  if  they  recovered.  Incursions  of  troops,  called  dragon- 
ades,  enforced  these  measures.  Finally,  Louis  revoked  the  edict  of 
Nantes  (1685  A.  D.),  ordered  all  Huguenots  to  become  converts  to 
the  Catholic  religion,  forbade  the  practice  of  their  worship,  and  ban- 
ished from  the  kingdom,  within  fifteen  days,  all  their  ministers  who 
would  not  recant.  Afterwards  he  closed  the  ports  against  the  fugi- 
tives, sent  those  who  attempted  to  escape  to  the  galleys,  and  con- 

What  did  Austria  and  England  demand  of  him  ?  Did  he  obey  them  ?  By 
what  trifle  was  he  saved  ?  Who  was  disgraced  by  Queen  Anne  ?  *  Who  remained 
king  of  Spain  ?  What  did  Austria  and  England  receive^?  What  Christian  sect 
did  Louis  persecute  ?  By  whom  was  he  instigated  to  do  so  ?  In  what  manner 
was  it  persecuted  ?  What  of  the  dragonades  ?  What  edict  did  he  revoke  ?  What 
result  did  his  persecution  cause  ? 


203 

fiscated  their  property.  However,  in  spite  of  all  prohibition  and 
punishment,  500,000  Huguenots  emigrated,  taking  with  them,  to  the 
great  damage  of  the  State,  their  treasures,  arts  and  industries  to 
England,  Holland  and  Germany.  New  violence  directed  against  the 
Huguenots  in  the  province  of  Languedoc,  and  financial  oppression 
of  its  inhabitants,  caused  an  insurrection  which  three  marshals  could 
scarcely  suppress  (i  703-1 704  A.  D.)  ico,ooo  men  lost  their  lives  on 
the  battle-field,  and  10,000  Huguenots  died  on  the  scaffold. 

Under  the  reign  of  Louis  the  public  offices  were  venal ;  45,000 
were  really  sold,  and,  for  want  of  money,  40,000  more  established 
and  offered  for  sale.  In  conclusion,  it  cannot  be  gainsaid  that  he 
greatly  encouraged  the  arts  and  sciences,  commerce  and  industry. 
A  great  share  of  his  merits,  however,  was  due  to  his  excellent 
minister,  Colbert.  He  reigned  72  years  (1643-1 7 15  A.  D.)  When 
he  at  last  died,  France  was  exultant. 

During  the  government  of  Louis  XV.,  John  Law,  in  order  to 
reimburse  the  immense  debt  of  the  State,  established  a  public  bank, 
which  at  first  afforded  great  profit  to  a  few  stockholders ;  but  as 
the  bank  became  unable  to  pay  more,  the  value  of  the  stocks  was 
lessened  to  one-half,  and  many  thousand  families  were  thus  reduced 
to  poverty. — Louis  XV.  was  engaged  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian 
succession,  and  the  Seven  Years'  War  (see  §§  85,  86.) 

I  88.     England.     C^om^A^ell.    War  Against  Holland.    Ad- 
mirals Blake,Van  Tromp,  and  de  Ruyter.     Charles  H. 
Wnigs  and  Tories.     Dethronement  of  James  II. 
William  IIL     Accession  of  the  House  of 
Hanover.    The  Pretenders. 

Cromwell  had  formed  the  project  of  a  coalition  with  Holland,, 
which  was  to  make  the  two  republics  one  and  indivisiblie ;  but 
national  antipathies  could  not  be  overcome,  and  instead  of  the  pro- 
posed coahtion,  there  ensued  a  fierce  war  (1652  A.  D.)  The  repub- 
lican parliament  passed  the  famous  Navigation  Act,  by  prohibiting 
the  importation  of  all  foreign  merchandise,  except  in  English  bot- 
toms, or  in  those  of  the  country  producing  the  commodities.  The 
act  tended  greatly  to  promote  the  naval  superiority  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, its  object  being  to  wrest  the  carrying  trade  of  Europe  from  the 

What  of  the  public  offices  ?  To  whom  was  due  a  great  share  of  his  merits- 
for  promoting  the  arts  and  sciences  ?  For  .what  purpose  was  the  bank  of  John  Law 
established  ?  What  was  its  result  ?  ^  88.  What  was  the  tendency  of  the  Navi- 
gation Act  ?    What  war  did  it  cause  ?     In  whose  favor  did  the  war  end  ? 


204 

Dutch.  The  war  terminated  in  favor  of  England.  The  celebrated 
Admiral  Blake  distinguished  himself  in  it;  he  had  for  his  antago- 
nists the-  great  Dutch  maritime  chiefs,  Van  Tromp  and  de  Ruy ter. 
Peace  was  concluded  on  terms  advantageous  to  England,  and 
Cromwell,  as  protector,  signed  the  treaty  of  pacification  (1654 
A.  D.) 

He  governed  England  with  unrivaled  energy  and  ability,  and 
was  the  most  powerful  potentate  of  his  time  in  Europe.  He  pro- 
moted commerce,  created  a  strong  navy,  and  made  wise  laws.  In 
private  life,  in  the  several  relations  of  a  husband,  a  father,  a  neigh- 
bor and  a  friend,  he  -was  exemplary.  His  household  was  like  that 
of  a  simple  citizen.  But  he  had  many  adversaries  and  enviers. 
Several  conspiracies  and  attempts  to  murder  him  deprived  him  of 
peace  of  mind.  After  his  death  (1658  A.  D.),  contending  factions 
in  the  army  as  well  as  in  parliament,  for  a  time  filled  the  country 
with  bloody  dissension,  when  General  Monk,  at  the  head  of  an 
army,  declared  in  favor  of  the  restoration  of  royalty ;  consequently, 
Charles  II.,  son  of  the  late  king,  was  proclaimed  sovereign  of  Eng- 
land by  the  united  acclamations  of  the  army,  the  people,  and  the  two 
houses  of  parliament.  He  had  not  become  wiser  by  the  misfortune 
of  his  father.  He  caused  the  documents  of  the  republic  to  be 
burned  by  the  hangman,  and  the  Scots  to  be  cruelly  persecuted  by 
his  Catholic  brother,  James ;  he  limited  the  right  of  petition,  and 
deprived  the  cities  of  their  liberties.  A  conspiracy  was  planned 
against  him,  in  which  the  most  excellent  men  participated.  But  it 
was  detected,  and  the  conspirators  atoned  for  their  crime  by  their 
blood  (1683  A.  D.) 

During  his  administration  the  Whig  and  Tory  parties  were 
organized.  The  former  gave  the  nation  the  Tight  to  oppose  energetic 
resistance  to  the  king  who  would  injure  the  constitution,  but  the 
latter  required  passive  obedience  by  the  people.  Parliament  also 
decreed  the  celebrated  habeas -cor pics  act,  that  sacred  law  of  personal 
liberty.  By  the  provisions  of  this  act,  no  magistrate  is  authorized  to 
take  a  prisoner  without  showing  reason  for  the  arrest  in  writing,  and 
the  prisoner  shall  be  brought  within  three  days  before  the  judge. 
Though  Charles  professed  adherence  to  the  principles  of  the  Reforma- 

What  admirals  distinguished  themselves  in  the  war  ?  How  was  Cromwell's 
public  administration  and  private  life  ?  What  general  declared  in  favor  of  the 
restoration  of  royalty  ?  Mention  some  ordinances  of  Charles  II.  Explain  the 
terms  "  Whigs  "  and  "  Tories;"  the  habeas-corpus  act. 


205 

tion,  yet  his  great  and  secret  designs  were   the  establishment  of 
papacy. 

His  brother,  James  II.,  forced  the  Scots  to  forsake  their  creed^ 
and  appointed  bishops,  suspended  350  Presbyterian  ministers  and 
expelled  them,  together  with  their  families.  In  England,  also, 
he  assailed  the  national  church.  Guided  by  the  Jesuits,  he  abol- 
ished religious  freedom,  appointed  Catholic  teachers  in  the  col- 
leges, turned  out  Protestant  ministers,  and  gave  the  public  offices  to- 
Catholics,  in  opposition  to  the  laws  of  the  country.  In  Ireland 
also  he  gave  orders  to  persecute  and  exterminate  the  Protestants. 
Many  of  the  nobility  and  great  men  of  the  kingdom,  foreseeing  no 
redress  for  their  grievances,  finally  sent  an  invitation  to  William^ 
prince  of  Orange,  the  stadt-holder  of  the  United  Dutch  Provinces^ 
who  had  married  the  king's  eldest  daughter,  and  requested  him  ta 
come  over  and  aid  them,  by  his  arms,  in  the  recovery  of  their  laws 
and  liberties.  William  landed  at  the  head  of  an  army,  declaring 
that  he  had  come  to  restore  liberty  (1688  A.  D.)  He  was  every- 
where received  with  the  highest  favor.  The  frightened  tyrant  fled 
secretly  to  France.  The  national  convention,  called  by  William, 
declared  that  the  king's  withdrawal  was  an  abdication  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  that  the  throne  was  thereby  made  vacant,  and  a  bill 
was  passed  settling  the  crown  on  William  and  his  wife  Mary,  and 
the  succession  on  princess  Anne,  the  next  eldest  daughter  of  the 
late  king.  At  the  same  time  the  convention  made  a  declaration  of 
the  most  precious  natural  and  constitutional  rights  of  the  English 
people;  thereby  the  English  constitution  was  completed.  The 
Catholic  religion  was  forever  excluded  from  the  throne.  James, 
furnished  with  a  fleet  by  Louis  XIV.,  returned  and  landed  in 
Ireland,  where  the  Catholics  took  up  arms  for  him,  but  lost  the  decis- 
ive battle,  and  fled  again  to  France,  where  Louis  granted  him  a 
beggar's  hvelihood.  The  course  taken  by  this  monarch  led  to  a. 
declaration  of  war  against  France  (1689  A.  D.)  which,  in  its  prog- 
ress, involved  most  of  the  continental  powers,  who  united  with 
William  for  the  purpose  of  putting  a  stop  to  the  encroachments  of 
Louis  (see  §  87). 

What  misdeeds  did  James  II.  commit  .-•  How  did  he  deal  with  the  Protestant 
Scots?  How  with  the  national  Church  of  England?  How  with  the  Protestants 
of  Ireland  ?  To  whom  did  he  give  the  public  offices  ?  Who  was  invited  to  assist 
England  ?  How  did  William  proceed  ?  How  was  he  received  ?  What  did  the 
national  convention  declare  ?  What  religion  was  excluded  from  the  throne  ?  Who' 
took  up  arms  for  James  II.  ?     What  was  his  end  ? 


206 

After  William,  Anne  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  after  her 
George  I.,  prince  elector  of  Hanover,  and  great  grandson  of  Jai^ies 
I.  (17 14  A.  D.)  A  most  prominent  person  in  the  administration 
during  a  portion  of  his  reign  and  during  the  first  part  of  that  of 
George  II.,  was  the  talented  minister,  Robert  Walpole.  The  son  of 
James  II.  pretended  to  the  succession;  Louis  XIV.  favored  his 
cause,  and  many  Scotch  nobles  took  up  arms  in  defense  of  it.  The 
Pretender  arrived  in  Scotland  and  was  proclaimed  king  by  his  follow- 
ers, but  finding  his  struggle  desperate,  he  returned  to  France.  The 
rebellion  was  suppressed,  and  the  leaders  executed.  His  son, 
Charles  Edward,  called  the  young  Pretender,  repeated  the  attempt 
of  his  father.  Assisted  by  Louis  XV.,  he  landed  at  the  head  of  a 
small  force  in  Scotland,  and  caused  his  father  to  be  proclaimed  king 
of  Great  Britain.  But  the  royal  troops  gained  a  bloody  victory  over 
him  at  Culloden  (1746  A.  D.)  which  forever  crushed  the  hope  of  the 
Stuart  family.  Numbers  of  his  adherents  perished  on  the  scaffold 
or  by  military  execution.  Under  George  III.  the  United  States  of 
North  America  became  independent  (see  §  92,  etc.)  His  great 
minister  was  William  Pitt  (Lord  Chatham). 

g  89.     Northern   States.      Peter  the  Great.      Charles  XII. 
Battles  at  Narva  and  Pultowa.     First  Parti- 
tion of  Poland. 

Alexei,  Czar  of  Russia,  left  several  children.  When  his  eldest 
son  had  died  (1682  A.  D.)  the  youngest,  Peter,  ought  to  have  suc- 
ceeded to  the  government ;  but  his  sister,  Sophia,  sought  to  supplant 
him,  and,  supported  by  the  body-guards,  even  to  deprive  him  of 
life ;  but  he  frustrated  her  scheme,  and  relegated  her  to  a  convent. 
Having  learned  from  his  tutor,  Le  Fort,  of  Geneva,  to  appreciate 
civilization,  Peter  resolved  to  enlighten  the  people  of  his  country,  and 
thus  raise  them  from  their  state  of  barbarism.  To  this  end  he  or- 
ganized an  army,  taking  Europe  for  his  model,  and  built  a  fleet. 
For  the  sake  of  commerce  he  seized  the  town  of  Azof  from  the  Turks 
(1696  A.  D.)  At  this  time  he  also  suppressed  a  conspiracy  of  the 
life-guards.     He  went  to  Germany,  Holland  and  England  (1697  A. 

Who  succeeded  William  and  Anne?  Who  was  a  prominent  minister  of 
George  I.  and  II.  ?  Give  a  narrative  of  the  attempt  of  the  two  Pretenders.  ^  89. 
WTiowas  the  celebrated  son  of  Czar  Alexei?  Who  tried  to  supplant  Peter? 
With  the  help  of  whom  ?  How  did  Peter  punish  his  sister  ?  What  did  he  resolve 
upon  concerning  his  country  ?  What  did  he  organize  ?  What  build  ?  What 
town  seize  from  the  Turks  ?     Give  an  account  of  his  travels. 


207 

D.),  in  order  to  acquire  more  learning.  In  Holland  he  learned 
ship-building,  and  was  not  ashamed  to  wield  the  ax  like  a  common 
ship-wright.  In  Saardam  the  house  where  he  then  lived  as  a  journey- 
man is  still  shown.  He  also  took  instruction  in  surgery,  chemistry 
and  physics.  On  his  return  he  was  accompanied  by  numerous  arti- 
sans whom  he  had  engaged  to  aid  him  in  the  great  design  of  civiliz- 
ing his  subjects.  Recalled  from  a  second  journey  by  a  new  riot  of 
the  life-guards,  he  punished  the  guilty  in  a  terrible  manner  (1698  A. 
D.)  He  suspected  Sophia  to  have  again  instigated  the  revolt.  He 
caused  many  of  the  guilty  to  be  put  to  the  rack  in  order  to  compel 
them  to  confess  their  crime,  and  many  were  hung  below  the  win- 
dows of  his  sister.  He  himself  assisted  in  this  bloody  work.  After 
a  third  sedition  he  abolished  the  corps  (1705  A.  D.) 

In  order  to  promote  commerce  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  he  resolved  to 
dispossess  the  Swedes  of  the  lands  they  had  there.  Poland  and 
Denmark  were  his  allies.  But  Charles  XII.,  the  young  king  of  Swe- 
den, subdued  the  Danes,  and  with  a  small  army  defeated  80,000 
Russians  at  Narva,  one-fourth  of  whom  he  killed  in  battle  (1700  A. 
D.  He  then  expelled  Augustus,  king  of  Poland  and  Saxony,  from 
Poland  ( 1 702-1706  A.  D.),  and  put  Saxony  under  contribution. 
Meanwhile  Peter  conquered  the  Swedish  province  Ingermanland,  on 
the  Baltic  Sea,  and  with  a  great  loss  of  human  life  founded  the  city  of 
Petersburg  (1703  A.  D.)  Charles  invaded  Russia,  and  first  ad- 
vanced to  Moscow ;  then  he  turned  to  the  Ukraine,  where  he  expected 
to  have  the  assistance  of  the  Cossacks;  but  his  hope  was  frustrated, 
and  he  as  well  as  his  troops  suffered  bitterly  from  want  of  provisions. 
Peter  made  an  offer  of  reconciliation,  but  Charles  would  not  resolve 
on  peace  except  in  Moscow.  He  was  totally  beaten  at  Pultowa, 
and  himself  wounded  (1709  A.  D.);  he  then  fled  to  the  Turks.  After 
two  years  he  succeeded  in  inciting  them  to  make  war  against  Peter ; 
200,000  Turks  surrounded  the  Russians  on  the  banks  of  the  Pruth; 
Peter  seemed  to  be  lost;  but  the  sagacity  of  his  wife  Catharine,  who 
accompanied  him  during  the  campaign,  saved  him  and  the  army. 
She  advised  him  to  bribe  the  Turkish  General  with  her  own  jewels, 
which  she  freely  offered ;  the  attempt  succeeded,  and  Peter  obtained, 

How  did  he  punish  his  life-guards  after  a  new  riot  ?  In  what  way  would  he 
promote  commerce  on  the  Baltic  Sea  ?  Who  opposed  him  ?  In  what  battle  was 
he  defeated  by  Charles  XII.  ?  How  did  the  latter  deal  with  the  king  of  Poland  ? 
What  large  city  did  Peter  found  ?  How  did  Charles  succeed  in  the  war  against 
him?  Where  was  he  defeated?  Where  did  he  take  refuge?  Where  did  the 
Turks  surround  the  Russians  ?     Who  saved  Peter  ?     By  what  means  ? 


208 

on  fair  conditions,  free  retreat  and  peace.  Charles  remained  three 
years  more  in  Turkey,  in  order  to  rouse  it  once  more  against  Russia. 
In  the  meantime  Peter  made  great  conquests  in  Sweden.  When  finally 
the  sultan  himself  ordered  Charles  to  depart,  he  defied  him  also,  and 
in  his  foolhardiness  withstood  a  siege  of  his  house  one  day  against  a 
whole  Turkish  army.  Without  an  army,  and  with  a  single  com- 
panion, he  returned  to  his  kingdom,  which  was  in  the  greatest  con- 
fusion. In  a  second  war  against  Denmark  he  was  killed  by  a  ball 
(1718A.  D.) 

Meanwhile  Peter  continued  to  take  care  of  the  welfare  of  his 
country.  He  called  into  it  many  foreign  manufacturers,  mechanics, 
artists  and  scholars,  established  schools,  built  high-roads  and  canals,, 
improved  agriculture,  limited  the  power  of  the  clergy,  and  reformed 
the  convents.  His  care  extended  from  one  end  of  his  vast  realm  to 
the  other.  He  respected  merit  in  every  position,  and  placed  little 
value  upon  rank  and  race.  He  made  Menshikof,  a  confectioner,  his 
friend  and  minister,  and  took  Catharine,  daughter  of  a  Swedish  peas- 
ant, for  his  second  wife.  He  had  repudiated  his  first  wife  because  she 
disliked  his  reforms.  His  son  Alexei  also  detested  them,  being  misled 
by  discontented  noblemen  and  monks,  and  caused  public  commo- 
tions (17 16  A.  D.),  while  Peter  was  again  traveHng  abroad.  Then 
the  father  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death  (it  is  said,  at  the  instigation 
of  Catharine). — Chief  among  Peter's  faults  were  drunkenness  and 
ill-temper,  during  which  he  often  rudely  treated  friends  most  en- 
deared to  him,  sometimes  even  with  the  knout.  He  died  suddenly 
(1725  A.  D.),  and  not  having  designated  a  successor,  Catharine  was 
proclaimed  heiress  of  the  throne.     She  reigned  two  years. 

Under  Peter  II.  Menshikof  atoned  for  his  insolence  against  the 
grandees  with  banishment.  Elizabeth  I.,  a  daughter  of  Peter  I.,  put 
the  youth  Ivan  into  prison,  exiled  the  imperial  ministers,  Miinnich 
and  Osterman,  to  Siberia,  and  ascended  the  throne  herself. 

Catharine  II.  caused  her  husband,  Peter  III.,  to  be  murdered, 
waged  war  against  the  Turks,  and  seized  a  large  part  of  Poland. 
She  ordered  troops  to  march  into  this  land  under  the  pretense  of 
restoring   tranquillity  between  its  contesting  parties.     When  they 

How  long  did  Charles  remain  in  Turkey?  Give  a  specimen  of  his  fool- 
hardiness.  What  was  his  end  ?  How  did  Peter  care  for  his  country  ?  Did  he 
place  much  value  upon  rank  and  race?  Illustrate  by  examples.  How  did  he 
deal  with  his  first  wife  and  his  son  Alexei  ?  What  were  his  chief  faults  .''  Who 
was  proclaimed  empress  after  his  death  ?  What  of  Elizabeth  I.  and  Catharine 
II.  ?     Under  what  pretense  did  the  latter  march  troops  into  Poland  ? 


209 

then  engaged  in  civil  war,  she,  Frederic  II.  and  Joseph  II.  deman- 
ded the  cession  of  dififerent  provinces.  In  vain  the  people  com-* 
plained ;  in  vain  King  Stanislaus  Augustus  and  the  States- General 
protested  against  the  impudent  demand ;  in  vain  some  deputies  re- 
fused to  do  homage,  and  others  gave  themselves  up  in  despair  to 
death.  The  three  sovereigns  threatened  to  divide  the  whole  country 
among  themselves,  and,  therefore,  the  king  and  the  States- General  fin- 
ally agreed  to  their  exaction  (1772A.D.)  In  this  way  one-third  was 
torn  from  Poland  with  five  milHons  of  inhabitants;  Frederic  seized 
West  Prussia ;  Maria  Theresa,  Galicia,  and  Catharine  some  eastern 
provinces ;  the  three  sovereigns,  besides,  warranted  to  themselves  the 
undisturbed  possession  of  their  prey.  Europe  looked  upon  their  pro- 
ceedings with  silence.  Frederic  treated  his  new  subjects  cruelly. 
They  were,  like  cattle,  violently  dragged  to  Prussia,  their  estates  pil- 
laged, the  young  men  impressed,  the  daughters  arbitrarily  married, 
and  their  dowries  extorted  from  their  parents. 

^  90.     East  Indies.     Aureng  Zeb.     East  Indian  Company. 

In  the  East  Indies  Aureng  Zeb  (1659-1707  A.  D.)  elevated  the 
empire  of  the  Great  Mogul  to  the  summit  of  its  power,  but  after 
his  death  it  rapidly  sank  again.  Domestic  and  foreign  enemies  as- 
sailed it.  Among  the  latter  the  most  fortunate  was  Nadir,  who, 
from  a  camel-driver,  had  risen  to  the  dignity  of  a  Shah  of  Persia ; 
the  Great  Mogul  was  obliged  to  cede  many  possessions  to  him. 

When  Philip  II.,  who  had  united  Portugal  with  Spain,  was  en- 
gaged in  war  with  the  Dutch,  they  took  from  the  Portuguese  most  of 
their  possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  but  in  the  eighteenth  century 
they  lost  most  of  them  again  through  the  English. 

Queen  Elizabeth  had  already  conceded  to  'the  East  Indian  Com- 
pany, a  society  of  English  merchants,  the  privilege  of  carrying  on 
commerce  with  the  East  Indies.  The  Company  took  advantage  of 
the  decay  of  the  Mongolian  empire,  and  of  the  quarrels  of  the  native 
sovereigns,  in  order  to  make  conquests.  When  the  governor  of  Ben- 
gal  took  Calcutta,  the   principal  settlement  of  the  Company,  and 

What  did  she,  together  with  Frederic  II.  and  Joseph  II.,  demand  of  it? 
What  threats  did  they  make  ?  What  provinces  did  they  tear  from  Poland  ?  How 
did  Frederic  II.  deal  with  the  Polanders  ?  |  90.  What  of  Aureng  Zeb  and 
Nadir  in  the  East  Indies  ?  Who  seized  the  possessions  of  the  Europeans  in  the 
East  Indies  from  the  Portuguese  ?  Who  from  the  Dutch  ?  Give  an  account 
of  the  origin  and  aggrandizement  of  the  East  Indian  Company.  From  whom  did 
it  obtain  the  sovereignt,y  of  Bengal  ? 

(14) 


210 

dealt  cruelly  with  the  prisoners  (1756  A.  D.)  it  took  vengeance  by 
war,  and  obtained  from  the  Great  Mogul  the  sovereignty  of  Bengal 
for  an  annuity  (1765  A.  D.)  The  cruelty  of  the  English  finally  ex- 
cited general  exasperation;  Hyder  AH,  the  prudent  and  powerful 
sovereign  of  Mysore,  began  war  against  them,  and  continued  it  for 
many  years ;  aided  by  a  body  of  French  troops,  he  at  the  head  of 
an  army  of  ioo,coo  natives  attacked  the  English  forces,  and  killed 
or  captured  the  whole  of  them  (1780  A.  D.)  He  made  great  con- 
quests (i 779-1 783  A.  D.);  but  his  son,  Tippo  Saheb,  lost  them 
again,  and  the  dominion  of  his  own  lands  besides.  The  Company 
also  waged  war  against  the  Mahrattas  several  times  (after  1774  A.  D.) 
and  conquered  a  great  part  of  their  territory.  Thus  it  acquired,  in 
the  East  Indies,  the  possession  of  a  far-reaching  dominion.  It  estab- 
lished its  own  government,  appointed  governors  and  maintained 
great  armies.  But  later  it  had  to  give  up  the  right  of  government 
in  the  conquered  countries  to  the  English  crown  (1784  A.  D.)  Its 
monopoly  of  trade  was  also  by  degrees  limited,  and  finally  was 
reduced  to  the  single  article  of  tea. 

I  91.     United  States  of  North   America.    Their  Colonies. 
The  French  Wars. 

The  first  settlements  in  the  United  States  of  America  were  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  period  (see  §  71).  More  colonies  were 
founded  in  this  period.  Connecticut  and  New  Hampshire  were 
settled  by  colonists  from  England ;  the  latter  was  sometimes  united 
to  Massachusetts,  and  at  other  times  separated  from  it;  finally  it 
was  separated,  remaining  a  distinct  colony  (1741  A.  D.)  The 
different  colonies  of  the  former  were  also  united  into  one  by  Charles 
II.  (1665  A.  D.) — New  Jersey  and  Delaware  were  settled  much  like 
New  York,  and  fell  under  English  rule  at  the  same  time  as  New 
York.  New  Jersey  later  became  a  separate  province  (1738  A.  D.) — 
North  Carolina  was  settled  by  emigrants  from  Virginia  and  Europe ; 
South  Carolina,  by  English  and  Huguenots.  Both  at  first  formed 
one  colony,  called  Carolina;  later  (1729  A.  D.)  North  Carolina  was 
made  a  separate  one. — Georgia  was  founded  by  English  emigrants 

Who  was  its  most  formidable  enemy  ?  What  did  it  establish  ?  To  whom  did 
it  then  give  up  its  right  of  government  ?  To  what  article  was  its  monopoly  of 
trade  at  last  limited?  §  91.  What  of  the  settlements  in  Connecticut  and  New 
Hampshire  ?  In  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  ?  In  North  and  South  Carolina  ? 
In  Georgia  ?     What  of  Maine  ? 


211 

under  Oglethorpe  (1733  A.  D.) — Maine  was  a  part  of  Massachusetts 
till  1S20,  when  it  came  into  the  Union  as  an  independent  State. 

The  most  remarkable  colony  is  that  of  the  noble-minded  Quaker, 
William  Penn,  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  so-called  from  his  name. 
The  English  government  had  owed  Penn's  father,  who  was  an  ad- 
miral in  the  British  navy,  a  large  sum  of  money.  Penn,  in  payment, 
took  a  grant  for  a  large  territory  in  that  State  and  bought  other 
lands  from  the  Indians,  with  whom  he  made  a  famous  treaty.  A 
large  company  of  emigrants,  mostly  Quakers,  left  England  and 
came  to  the  new  settlement  (1681  A.  D.)  He  laid  the  foundation 
of  Philadelphia  (brotherly  love),  and  gave  to  his  colony  an  excel- 
lent constitution  (see  §  94).  It  grew  rapidly  and  prospered.  The 
colonists  lived  in  unbroken  harmony  with  the  Indians,  who  called 
Penn  "  Onas,"  and  the  highest  praise  they  could  give  a  white  man 
was  to  say  he  was  like  "  Onas."  After  Penn's  death  (17 18  A.  D.) 
his  sons  were  the  proprietors  of  the  colony. — The  Spaniards  foun- 
ded St.  Augustine  in  Florida  (1565  A.  D.),  the  oldest  city  in  the 
United  States,  and  Santa  Fe  in  New  Mexico  (1582  A.  D.) 

Almost  all  the  colonies  were  more  or  less  troubled  with  Indian 
wars;  Virginia  suffered  two  massacres,  in  which  several  hundred 
whites  were  slaughtered.  The  colonists  invariably  got  the  better  in 
the  end,  and  gradually  the  Indians  receded  farther  and  farther  from 
the  neighborhood  of  the  whites. 

In  the  last  period  (after  1600  A.  D.)  the  French  commenced  to 
colonize  Acadia  (New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  etc.),  and  Canada, 
calling  these  countries  New  France.  Port  Royal  (Annapolis)  was 
their  first  permanent  colony.  In  17 18  the  city  of  New  Orleans 
was  founded  by  them.  They  gradually  established  .missions,  trad- 
ing-posts and  forts  along  the  chain  of  the  Great  Lakes,  e.  g.,  Fort 
Niagara,  penetrated  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  finally  claimed  that 
valley  from  the  source  of  this  river  to  its  mouth,  saying  it  was  a 
part  of  New  France.  The  presence  of  two  rival  nations  on  the 
same  soil  made  it  certain  that  some  time  the  two  would  come  into 
conflict.     The  conflict  came,  and  was  fought  through  four  wars. 

During  King  Wifliam's  war,  which  was  waged  in  Europe  be- 
tween England  and  France  (1688-1697  A.  D.),  the  eastern  Indians, 

Which  is  the  most  remarkable  colony  ?  Give  an  account  of  William  Penn. 
What  grant  did  he  take  from  England  ?  What  city  did  he  found  ?  What  did  the 
Indians  call  him?  By  what  tribes  were  the  colonies  troubled?  What  did  the 
French  call  New  France  ?  What  did  they  establish  along  the  chain  of  the  Great 
Lakes  ?     What  valley  did  they  claim  as  part  of  New  France  ? 


212 

who  were  allies  of  the  French,  destroyed  several  settlements  in 
Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  New  York  State.  The  colonists  re- 
solved to  send  a  fleet  and  an  army  to  attack  Quebec  and  Montreal. 
But  the  expedition  was  a  failure ;  only  Port  Royal  was  taken.  By 
the  treaty  of  Ryswick  it  was  agreed  that  each  side  was  to  have  the 
same  territory  as  before  the  war. 

In  Queen  Anne's  war  (1702-17 13  A.  D.)  the  contest  took  the  same 
form  as  the  previous  one.  The  French  and  their  Indian  alHes  laid 
waste  the  frontier  setdements  of  New  England.  The  colonists  de- 
termined again  to  invade  Acadia  and  Canada ;  but  the  plan  was 
once  more  a  failure.  The  only  gain  to  England  was  the  winning  of 
Acadia.  After  the  war,  the  French  continued  to  increase  their 
power  in  the  Northwest.  They  built  Fort  Niagara  and  Crown 
Point,  and  had- more  than  sixty  military  stations,  extending  from 
Lake  Ontario  down  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans. 

Their  progress  was  interrupted  by  King  George's  war  (1744  A, 
D.)  There  was  only  one  important  event  in  this  war,  the  capture 
of  Louisburg,  on  Cape  Breton  Island,  and  even  this  place  was  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  given  up  to  the  French  (1748  A.  D.) 

Thus  far  the  English  had  attempted  no  settlements  west  of  the 
Alleghanies.  Now  a  company  of  English  merchants  obtained  from 
the  king  of  England  a  grant  of  a  large  tract  of  land  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  and  established  a  trading-post  on  the 
Monongahela.  The  French  immediately  sent  troops  to  build  forts 
in  the  disputed  territory.  Major  George  Washington,  a  young  Vir- 
ginian, only  twenty-one  years  old,  was  then,  in  the  name  of  the 
English  government,  sent  as  embassador  to  demand  an  explanation 
of  this  outrage  on  the  part  of  the  French.  The  French  command- 
ant sent  back  a  letter  by  Washington  to  the  governor  of  Virginia, 
refusing  to  withdraw  the  French  troops  from  the  disputed  territory. 
The  governor  sent  a  party  of  workmen  to  construct  a  fort  at  the 
junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  rivers,  and  a  regiment 
of  soldiers,  in  which  Washington  was  second  in  command.     Mean- 

"What  was  the  success  of  the  expeditions  to  Quebec  and  Montreal  in  King 
William's  war  ?  What  country  did  the  English  gain  in  Queen  Anne's  war  ? 
How  many  military  stations  did  the  French  have  after  this  "war,  between  Lake 
Ontario  and  New  Orleans  ?  On  what  tributary  of  the  Ohio  river  did  a  company 
of  English  merchants  establish  a  trading-post  ?  What  did  the  French  then  do  in 
the  disputed  territory  ?  Who  was  sent  as  an  embassador  to  them  ?  What  was 
the  reply  of  the  French  commander  ?  What  did  the  governor  of  Virginia  cause 
to  be  constructed  there  ?     Who  was  second  in  command? 


213 

while  the  French  had  driven  off  the  fort-builders,  and  themselves 
completed  the  work  (1754  A.  D.)  They  called  it  Fort  du  Quesne 
(now  Pittsburg).  Washington  hastened  forward  with  an  advanced 
party,  and  beat  a  body  of  the  French  at  a  place  called  Great  Mead- 
ows. There  he  built  Fort  Necessity,  which  was  about  fifty  miles 
■distant  from  Fort  du  Quesne.  While  waiting  here  the  commander 
died,  and  Washington  became  chief  commander.  He  was  attacked 
by  the  French  and  had  to  surrender,  after  having  held  out  all  day. 
He  and  his  troops  were  permitted  to  return  to  Virginia.  Next 
spring  General  Braddock  marched  at  the  head  of  two  regiments  of 
regulars  against  Fort  du  Quesne.  Washington  accompanied  him 
as  an  aide-de-camp  (1755  ^-  ^■)  Nearly  all  the  colonies  had 
raised  militia,  and  voted  money  and  supplies  to  carry  on  this  cam- 
paign. When  near  the  fort,  Braddock,  leading  an  advanced  body 
of  about  1,200  men,  was  attacked  by  the  French  and  Indians,  who 
were  concealed  in  the  woods.  The  whole  column  was  thrown  into 
•confusion  and  fled  in  a  panic.  The  commander  was  killed.  Wash- 
ington, w^ith  a  Httle  band  of  Virginians,  covered  the  retreat.  The 
expedition  was  now  given  up. 

Another  column,  designed  to  march  against  Fort  Niagara, 
reached  Oswego,  but  storms,  sickness  and  desertion  of  the  Indians 
induced  the  commander  to  abandon  the  enterprise. 

A  third  column  of  6,000  men,  led  by  General  Johnson,  and 
sent  to  attack  Fort  Crown  Point,  built  Fort  Edward  on  the  Hudson, 
and  moved  to  the  southern  end  of  Lake  George.  As  the  French 
moved  forward  to  attack  the  fort,  Johnson  sent  Colonel  Williams 
with  a  thousand  men  to  wjatch  the  French.  A  fight  followed,  in 
which  Williams  was  defeated  and  killed.  The  French  followed  the 
fugitives  to  Johnson's  main  body,  which  was  encamped  at  Lake 
George,  where  they  were  defeated,  and  their  general,  Dieskau,  taken 
prisoner.  Johnson,  not  feehng  able  to  attack  Crown  Point,  dis- 
banded his  army. 

While  preparations  for  this  campaign  were  going  on,  an  expedi- 
tion sailed  to  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  kidnapped  the  French 
settlers  of  Nova  Scotia  to   the  number  of  7,000,  put  them  on  board 

Give  an  account  of  Washington's  conflict  with  the  French,  \\nio  was  the 
<:ommander  of  the  English  regulars  against  Fort  du  Quesne  the  next  spring  ? 
Who  accompanied  him  ?  By  whom  was  Braddock  attacked  ?  With  what  effect  ? 
Who  covered  the  retreat  ?  With  what  success  did  another,  and  a  third  cohimn 
•carry  on  the  war?  What  of  the  kidnapping  of  the  French  settlers  of  Nova 
Scotia  ? 


214 

the  ships,  and  exiled  them  to  various  colonies.  It  was  a  terrible 
deed,  but  it  was  thought  necessary. 

In  the  two  following  campaigns  Montcalm,  the  French  general, 
capture'd  the  fort  at  Oswego  (1756  A.  D.)  and  Fort  William  Henry 
(1757  A.  D.)  In  the  former  he  took  1,400  prisoners  and  a  large 
quantity  of  stores ;  in  the  latter,  2,000  troops.  His  Indian  allies 
killed  a  number  of  prisoners  in  cold  blood  here.  The  great  William 
Pitt  was  now  made  a  member  of  the  British  cabinet,  and  placed  at 
the  head  of  colonial  affairs.  He  prepared  to  carry  on  the  war  with 
great  vigor. 

In  the  fourth  campaign  (1758  A.  D.)  50,000  men — 22,000  Brit- 
ish regulars  and  28,000  colonists — were  engaged.  Three  expedi- 
tions were  planned.  The  first  took  Cape  Breton  Island,  with  6,000 
prisoners  and  a  large  amount  of  munitions  of  war.  It  was  a  very 
severe  blow  to  the  French.  The  only  success  of  the  second  expe- 
dition was  the  capture  of  Fort  Frontenac  (now  Kingston).  The 
operations  of  the  third  campaign  were  directed  against  Fort  du 
Quesne.  The  French  force  there,  being  now  much  reduced,  aban- 
doned the  fort.     Its  name  was  changed  to  Fort  Pitt  (now  Pittsburg). 

In  the  last  campaign  (1759  A.  D.)  the  principal  object  was  to 
capture  Quebec.  With  a  fleet  carrying  8,000  troops.  General  Wolfe 
sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Orleans  Island,  a  few  miles  below 
Quebec.  Here  he  landed  and  prepared  for  the  attack.  For  this 
reason  Montcalm  weakened  the  garrisons  at  Ticonderoga,  Crown 
Point,  Fort  Niagara,  etc.  The  result  was  their  capture.  The  pre- 
liminary operations  of  General  Wolfe  were  unsuccessful.  After- 
wards the  bold  design  of  scaling  the  Heights  of  Abraham  was  car- 
ried out.  Here  was  fought  a  battle  that  decided  the  war  (the  13th 
of  September).  Wolfe  was  twice  wounded,  but  continued  to  lead 
the  charge  at  the  head  of  his  grenadiers  till  he  received  a  third  and 
mortal  wound.  Montcalm  also  was  mortally  wounded.  After 
hours  of  stubborn  fighting,  the  left  wing  and  center  of  the  French 
gave  way,  and  the  English  were  victorious.     Five  days  after,  Quebec 

WTiat  forts  did  Montcalm  capture  in  the  two  following  campaigns  ?  Who  was 
then  placed  at  the  head  of  colonial  affairs  in  the  British  cabinet?  How  many 
British  regulars  and  colonists  were  engaged  in  the  fourth  campaign  ?  How 
many  expeditions  were  planned  ?  What  island  did  the  first  expedition  take  ?  What 
fort  did  the  second  expedition  capture  ?  x\gainst  what  fort  was  the  third 
directed  ?  What  was  the  principal  object  of  the  last  campaign  ?  Who  was  the 
English  general  ?  Describe  his  campaign.  Where  did  General  Wolfe  land  ? 
\\Tiat  Heights  did  he  scale?     Give  an  account  of  the  battle. 


215 

surrendered.  Soon  after  Montreal  and  other  military  stations  in 
Canada  were  also  given  up  to  the  English.  The  contest  for  the 
possession  of  America  ended  triumphantly  for  them  (1760  A.  D.) 
Three  years  after  peace  was  concluded.  During  this  time  the 
Indians  were  very  hostile,  capturing  most  of  the  English  posts  in 
the  Northwest,  and  killing  hundreds  of  persons.  At  length  the  colon- 
ists subdued  them.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris  France  gave  up  to 
England  all  her  American  possessions  east  of  the  Mississippi,  except 
New  Orleans  (1763  A.  D.)  By  the  same  treaty  Spain  ceded 
Florida  to  England  in  exchange  for  Havana. 

g  92.     Continued.  War  of  the  Colonies  for  Independence. 
The  Stamp  Act.    Battle  at  Bunker  Hill.     Declara- 
tion of  Independence.     George  Washington. 
Benjamin  Franklin.    Thomas  Paine. 

When  England  learned  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  her 
colonies,  she  attempted  to  limit  their  Hberty,  and  to  gain  their  com- 
mercial advantages  for  herself.  She  prohibited  them  from  establish- 
ing manufactories,  and  levied  high  duties  on  merchandise,  the  im- 
portation of  which  had  formerly  been  free.  The  French  wars  had 
added  largely  to  the  already  heavy  debt  of  England,  and  the  British 
government  determined  that  the  colonies  should  bear  a  part  of  this 
burden.  These  denied  that  parliament  had  a  right  to  impose  taxes 
upon  them,  their  own  losses  and  expenses  in  the  wars  having 
already  been  as  heavy  as  they  could  bear.  Nevertheless,  the 
parliament  passed  the  "Stamp  Act"  (1765  A.  D.),  an  act 
ordering  that  all  legal  writings,  together  with  pamphlets,  news- 
papers, etc.,  etc.,  in  the  colonies,  should  be  executed  on  stamped 
paper,  for  which  a  duty  should  be  paid  to  the  crown.  The  colon- 
ists became  highly  indignant ;  everywhere  was  heard  the  cry : 
"  Liberty,  property,  and  no  stamps !  "  The  stamp  act  was  not 
complied  with,  and  it  was  resolved  to  import  no  more  English 
goods  till  it  was  repealed.  In  order  to  dispense  more  easily  with 
them,  coarse  materials  were  fabricated ;  families  denied  themselves 
the  use  of  all  foreign  luxuries,  and   the  ladies  put  foreign  finery 

AVhat  generals  lost  their  lives  ?  Who  obtained  the  victory  ?  What  stations 
in  Canada  were  given  up  to  the  English  ?  What  was  the  result  of  the  peace  ? 
g  92.  What  did  England  attempt  after  the  French  wars  ?  What  did  it  deter- 
mine ?  Why  did  the  colonies  deny  England  the  right  to  impose  taxes  ?  What 
act  did  parliament  pass  ?  What  effect  did  the  Stamp  Act  produce  in  the  colonies  ? 
In  what  manner  did  they  dispense  with  English  goods  ? 


216 

aside.  By  such  measures  many  workmen  in  England  were  de- 
prived of  their  living,  and  some  of  the  most  successful  manufac- 
tories had  to  stop.  Benjamin  Franklin  made  his  appearance  (1766 
A.  D.)  in  parhament,  in  order  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  colonies. 
This  most  celebrated  man,  a  native  of  Boston,  had  been  a  printer 
while  young,  and  had  acquired  great  scholarship  by  private  studies. 
He  then  composed  ingenious,  useful,  popular  writings,  founded  a 
public  library  in  Philadelphia,  a  fire-company,  an  academy,  a  hos- 
pital, and  invented  the  Hghtning-rod  (1752  A.  D.)  His  country 
had  already  intrusted  him  with  the  most  important  offices ;  he  was 
now  postmaster-general  of  the  colonies.  He  spoke  in  parliament 
without  fear,  plainly,  with  energy  and  presence  of  mind.  WilHam 
Pitt  and  Edmund  Burke,  then  both  members  of  parliament,  also 
advocated  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  It  was  repealed,  but  at 
the  same  time  it  was  declared  that  parliament  had  the  right  to  tax 
the  colonies.  They  contested  this  right,  asserting  that  they  had, 
originally,  the  same  rights  as  the  mother  country,  therefore  the  right 
to  tax  themselves,  through  their  provincial  assemblies,  of  their  own 
accord;  the  more  so,  because  they  were  denied  representation  in 
the  English  parliament.  They  declared  that  taxation  without  rep- 
resentation was  tyranny.  The  first  colonial  congress,  meeting  in 
New  York  (1765  A.  D.),  made  a  similar  declaration,  and  a  petition 
to  the  king  and  parliament  was  also  sent  to  England.  This  coun- 
try, however,  soon  again  imposed  duties  on  different  articles,  and 
sent  revenue  commissioners  and  two  regiments  to  the  colonies. 
Bloodshed  soon  followed.  In  New  York  the  soldiers  killed  one 
man ;  in  Boston,  several.  The  attempt  to  raise  a  revenue  by  taxa- 
tion turned  out  a  total  failure.  England  repealed  the  duties,  except 
on  tea.  But  the  colonies  also  rejected  this  measure,  and  when 
the  tea  arrived  it  was,  in  different  places,  sent  back.  In  Boston, 
several  men,  disguised  as  Indians,  broke  open  a  number  of  tea- 
chests  and  emptied  them  into  the  sea  (1773  A.  D.) 


What  bad  results  were  thereby  caused  to  English  workmen  and  manufacturers  ? 
Who  defended  the  rights  of  the  colonies  in  parliament  ?  Give  some  particulars 
of  Franklin's  life.  What  office  did  he  then  hold  in  the  colonies  ?  What  mem- 
bers of  parliament  did  also  advocate  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  ?  Was  it  re- 
pealed ?  What  right  did  parliament  assert  it  possessed  ?  Did  the  colonies  acknowl- 
edge this  right?  Why  not?  What  congress  in  the  colonies  made  a  similar 
declaration  ?  What  did  parliament  again  impose  ?  What  further  did  it  do  against 
the  colonies  ?  Where  was  the  first  blood  shed  ?  What  article  was  not  exempted 
from  taxation?     How  were  the  tea  chests  handled  in  Boston  ? 


217    . 

These  events  incited  parliament  to  pass  the  most  severe  resolu- 
tions. The  port  of  Boston  was  closed  (1774  A.  D.);  the  partakers 
in  the  rebellion,  for  punishment,  were  to  be  carried  to  England ; 
Franklin  lost  his  office  of  postmaster-general.  The  colonists  began 
to  think  of  armed  resistance.  They  called  the  first  continental  con- 
gress at  Philadelphia,  in  which  they  agreed  upon  a  declaration  of 
rights,  recommended  the  suspension  of  all  commercial  intercourse 
with  England,  and  sent  another  petition  to  the  king.  The  Massa- 
chusetts assembly  organized  a  corps  of  militia  called  "  minute-men," 
and  formed  a  "committee  of  safety,"  with  John  Hancock  for 
chairman,  Washington  organized  the  militia  of  Virginia,  and  Pat- 
rick Henry  exclaimed  :  "  I  repeat  it,  sir,  we  must  fight !  Give  me 
liberty  or  give  me  death  !  "  General  Gage,  commander-in-chief  of 
the  British,  learning  that  there  were  some  military  supplies  at  Con- 
cord, sent  a  body  of  men  to  destroy  them.  When  they  reached 
Lexington  they  found  a  small  body  of  minute-men  there.  An 
English  officer  rode  up  to  them,  saying :  ''  Disperse,  you  rebels !  " 
As  the  Americans  did  not  obey,  he  ordered  the  soldiers  to  fire. 
Eight  Americans  were  killed  and  several  wounded;  the  rest  dis- 
persed. The  British  then  marched  on  to  Concord,  where  they 
destroyed  the  stores.  On  their  retreat  to  Charlestown  they  lost  about 
280  men ;  the  Americans  about  90.  The  colonies  immediately 
called  their  men  to  arms,  and  Gage  was  soon  beleaguered  in  Boston 
by  20,000  Americans. 

A  month  after  (in  May,  1775),  large  reinforcements  of  British 
troops  reached  Boston  from  England.  Gage  therefore  resolved  to 
commence  operations.  The  Americans  suspected  this,  and  sent  a 
force  of  800  men  to  pre-occupy  Bunker  Hill.  One  of  the  officers, 
however,  led  the  troops  to  Breed's  Hill,  directly  opposite  Boston, 
where  they,  during  the  night-time,  erected  an  earthwork.  Three 
thousand  regulars,  under  General  Howe,  crossed  in  boats  to  storm 
it,  behind  which  about  1,500  Americans,  under  Prescott,  lay.  The 
British  made  two  assaults,  but  were  severely  repulsed  by  the  Amer- 
icans. These,  however,  having  completely  used  up  their  ammuni- 
tion, the  British,  in  a  third  assault,  carried  the  defenses  (June  17th). 
But  the  victory  was  dearly  won,  for  they  had  lost   1,000  men;  the 

What  resolutions  did  pai'liament  then  adopt  ?  What  precautions  did  the  col- 
onists take  now  ?  Especially  Massachusetts  ?  Washington  ?  Relate  how  Gen- 
eral Gage  destroyed  the  military  supplies  at  Concord.  How  many  men  did  he 
lose  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  action  at  Breed's  Hill.  What  was  the  number  of 
men  lost  on  both  sides  ? 


•    218 

Americans  only  450.  Meanwhile  a  second  continental  congress 
was  held  in  Philadelphia,  in  which  the  confederation  of  the  thirteen 
colonies  was  declared,  they  receiving  the  name  of  the  "  United  Col- 
onies" (May,  1775).  I^  voted  to  raise  an  army  of  20,000  men, 
chose  George  Washington  as  commander-in-chief,  and  sent  Frank- 
lin off  to  France  in  order  to  gain  the  support  of  that  country. 
Soon  after  the  action  at  Lexington,  Ethan  Allen,  with  a  small  band 
of  volunteers,  took  Fort  Ticonderoga  by  stratagem,  the  fortress 
being  guarded  by  over  100  pieces  of  artillery;  Fort  Crown  Point 
surrendered  with  equal  ease-  The  invasion  of  Canada  with  two 
columns  was  also  planned — the  first  under  Schuyler  and  Montgom- 
ery, the  other  under  Benedict  Arnold ;  but  it  was  a  failure. 

It  was  known  that  a  large  British  army  would  arrive  in  the 
spring  (1776  A.  D.);  accordingly,  Washington  was  ordered  to  take 
Boston.  He  erected  batteries  on  the  Heights  of  Dorchester  (now 
South  Boston).  This  was  done  suddenly  and  secretly,  and  placed 
the  city  at  the  mercy  of  his  cannon.  General  Howe  surrendered, 
on  condition  that  he  should  be  allowed  to  withdraw  with  his  troops. 
Washington  occupied  Boston. 

The  first  offensive  movements  of  the  British  in  the  south  were 
directed  against  Charleston,  South  Carolina  (1776  A.  D.)  The 
entrance  to  the  harbor  was  defended  by  a  fort  (afterwards  named 
Fort  Moultrie),  made  of  sand  and  palmetto-logs,  and  garrisoned  by 
400  men,  under  Colonel  Moultrie.  A  land  and  naval  attack  made 
on  this  work  was  a  complete  failure.  In  a  few  days  the  expedition 
sailed  for  New  York.  South  Carolina  received  the  thanks  of  con-' 
gress  and  the  country  for  the  gallant  defense  of  Charleston. 

The  British  parliament  proclaimed  the  Americans  rebels,  and  raised 
a  large  army  to  crush  them  (1776  A.  D.)  Consequently,  the  Ameri- 
cans could  see  that  nothing  short  of  independence  would  now  do. 
Thomas  Paine,  the  secretary  of  the  congress,  in  his  "  Common  Sense,'^ 
first  proclaimed  the  grand  words :  "  The  free  and  independent  States 
of  America."  The  effect  of  this  pamphlet  was  electric ;  it  inflamed 
the  minds  of  the  Americans  to  declare  themselves  independent.* 

What  was  resolved  upon  in  the  second  continental  congress  ?  Who  took 
Fort  Ticonderoga  ?  What  of  the  invasion  of  Canada  ?  What  orders  w^ere  given 
to  Washington  ?  How  did  he  succeed  ?  What  of  Charleston  ?  Who  defended 
the  fort  ?  Who  succeeded  ?  What  did  congress  do  ?  Who  first  proclaimed  the 
word,   "  Independence  ?  "     What  of  the  pamphlet,    "  Common  Sense  ?  " 

.  ^  "J  Published  the  pamphlet  'Common  Sense.'  The  success  it  met  with  was  beyond  anything 
since  the  mvention  of  printing.  The  demand  ran  to  not  less  than  100,000  copies."— Th.  Paine, 
i'ol.  Works.  By  the  sale  of  this  pamphlet  Paine  had  an  opportunity  to  enrich  himself,  but  he  came 
out  poor,  lor  he  presented  the  copyright  to  each  of  the  colonies. 


219 

On  the  7th  of  June,  1776,  Richard  Lee,  of  Virginia,  offered 
a  resolution  that  the  "  United  Colonies  are,  and  ought  to  be,  free 
and  independent  States."  This  was  earnestly  debated  and  adopted 
July  2d.  A  committee  of  congress  had  been  appointed  to  prepare  a 
Declaration  of  Independence.  It  was  written  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  of 
Virginia.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1776,  it  was  adopted  by  congress. 
The  thirteen  colonies  then  became  the  United  States  of  America, 
the  royal  emblems  were  destroyed,  and  balls  were  made  out  of  the 
wrecks  of  the  statue  of  George  III. 

g  93.     Concluded.     Battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton.    La- 
fayette.    Surrender  of  Burgoyne.     French  Alliance. 
Surrender  of  Cornwallis.    Treaty  of  Paris. 
Washington  the  First  President. 

The  war  went  on.  England  was  fighting  with  German  mer- 
cenaries who  had  been  sold  to  this  end  by  the  sovereigns  of  Hesse, 
Brunswick  and  Hanover.  Washington,  the  commander-in-chief,  was 
the  son  of  a  rich  planter  in  Virginia.  He  had  made  of  himself  a 
good  surveyor  at  sixteen.  At  nineteen  he  was  made  adjutant  of  one 
of  the  Virginia  militia  districts,  with  the  rank  of  major.  Even  then 
he  was  looked  upon  as  a  young  man  of  uncommon  promise.  Now, 
as  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  federal  army,  his  military  talents 
appeared  to  full  advantage.  His  troops  were  not  drilled ;  they  were 
in  want  of  the  necessary  requisites  for  war,  often  even  pay  and  food  ; 
still  by  courage,  foresight  and  restless  activity  he  overcame  all  these 
impediments.  The  first  contests  were,  in  fact,  unfavorable  for  the 
Americans.  In  the  battle  of  Long  Island  they  lost  about  2,000  men 
(1776  A.,  D.);  the  British  General  Howe  captured  Fort  Washington 
with  about  3,000  Americans,  anci  General  Lee,  whom  Washington 
frequently  ordered  to  join  him  with  his  force,  did  not  obey  him.  It 
was  but  recently  discovered  that  he  was  a  traitor  to  the  American 
cause. 

These  successes  made  the  enemies  haughty  and  careless,  but 
Washington  surprised  them  at  Trenton,  where  he  captured  one  thou- 
sand Hessians  (1776  A.  D.),  and  at  Princeton  (1777  A.  D.),  and 
routed  them.     Franklin's  negotiations  at  the  French  court  were  so 

Who  offered  the  resolution  of  independence  in  congress?  When  was  it 
adopted  ?  Who  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence  ?  When  was  it  adopted  ? 
What  of  the  statue  of  George  III.?  §  93.  With  what  auxiliaries  did  Eng- 
land fight  the  Americans?  Give  some  account  of  Washington's  youth  ?  Who 
gained  the  battle  of  Long  Island  and  captured  Fort  Washington  ?  What  of 
General  Lee  ?     Of  the  battles  at  Trenton  and  at  Princeton  ? 


220 

•effective  beforehand  that  officers  with  implements  of  war  were 
secretly  permitted  to  go  to  America.  Many  volunteers  also  came 
to  assist  the  sons  of  liberty.  Among  them  Lafayette,  Kosciusko, 
Count  Pulaski,  Barons  de  Kalb  and  Steuben,  distinguished  themselves. 
The  former,  at  his  own  expense,  fitted  out  a  ship  for  the  Americans 
and  hastened  to  join  them,  in  spite  of  an  order  by  the  court  for- 
bidding him  to  do  so,  and  shed  his  blood  for  them. 

In  the  campaign  of  1777,  Washington  went  to  Brandy  wine  to 
prevent  the  British  from  moving  northward  to  Philadelphia,  but  was 
defeated,  and  the  British  took  possession  of  this  city.  He  then 
attacked  a  portion  of  the  British  army  at  Germantown,  but  was 
again  repulsed.  The  enemies  also  took  Forts  Mifflin  and  Mercer, 
below  Philadelphia.  Washington  then  went  into  winterquarters  at 
Valley  Forge.  It  was  a  gloomy  winter ;  his  army  was  dispirited 
and  miserably  supplied ;  many  soldiers  were  barefooted ;  they  were 
scantily  clad,  ill-fed  and  unpaid.  In  these  times,  "  that  tried  men's 
souls,"  Thomas  Paine  published  and  continued  a  new  series  of 
pamphlets  to  the  end  of  the  war,  entided  '^  The  Crisis,"  by  which 
he  raised  the  sunken  spirit  of  the  American  army,  and  powerfully 
promoted  the  work  which  led  to  the  glorious  result  of  the  contest. 

More  brilliant  were  the  successes  of  the  Americans  in  New 
York  State.  Burgoyne,  the  British  general,  sent  two  detachments 
to  capture  a  quantity  of  stores  at  Bennington,  Vermont ;  both  were 
defeated  by  the  Colonels  John  Stark  and  Warner,  with  a  body,  of 
"  Green  Mountain  Boys  "  and  New  Hampshire  militia.  He  then 
advanced  on  Stillwater,  where  he  was  defeated ;  he  next  attempted 
to  retreat  to  Fort  Edward.  The  Americans,  under  General  Gates, 
advanced  so  rapidly  that  they  cut  off  his  retreat,  and  surrounded 
his  army  at  Saratoga ;  he  had  to  surrender  with  nearly  6,000  men 
(October  17th). 

When  the.  French  king  heard  of  Burgoyne 's  surrender,  he  hesi- 
tated no  longer;  he  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  United 
States,  made  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  them,  and  assisted  them  with 

What  did  Franklin  effect  at  the  court  of  the  French  king  ?  What  volunteers 
aided  the  Americans  ?  What  of  Lafayette  ?  Of  the  battles  at  Brandywine  and 
Germantown?  Of  Forts  Mifflin  and  Mercer?  Describe  the  winterquarters  in 
Valley  Forge.  By  what  pamphlets  did  Thomas  Paine  encourage  the  army  ?  What 
were  the  successes  of  the  Americans  in  the  State  of  New  York  ?  Who  defeated 
Burgoyne  at  Bennington  ?  Where  was  he  again  defeated  ?  Who  captured  his 
army  at  Saratoga  ?  How  many  men  were  made  prisoners  ?  Who  made  a  treaty 
■of  alliance  with  the  United  States  ? 


221 

money  and  troops.  Spain  and  Holland  joined  France,  and  in  the 
East  Indies  the  formidable  Hyder  Ali  was  fighting  England  (see 
§  90).  Humiliated,  England  now  offered  peace  to  the  colonies ;  but 
not  willing  to  acknowledge  their  independence,  the  contest  was  con- 
tinued. In  Germany,  Emperor  Joseph  II.  forbade  the  levying  of 
troops  for  England ;  Frederic  II.  also  declared  for  America.  About 
2,000  German  mercenaries  deserted  from  the  British  army  to  the 
Americans. 

The  contest  continued,  but  for  three  years  showed  no  great 
results ;  therefore  a  summary  of  the  events  will  suffice  for  the  out- 
lines of  a  Universal  History.  In  April,  1778,  a  French  fleet  sailed 
for  America,  the  effect  of  which  was  the  retreat  of  the  British  from 
Philadelphia.  Washington  followed  and  overtook  them  near  Mon- 
mouth, New  Jersey.  Here  an  action  took  place,  but  owing  to  the 
bad  conduct  of  General  Lee,  nothing  was  gained.  He  was  dis- 
missed from  service  for  insolent  behavior  to  General  Washington. 
When  the  French  fleet  arrived  in  America,  it  sailed  out  to  give  bat- 
tle to  the  British.  But  a  violent  storm  arose,  which  so  damaged  it 
that  it  had  to  put  into  Boston  for  repairs.  After  refitting,  it  sailed 
for  the  West  Indies,  and  the  British  had  to  follow  it.  A  British 
division,  sent  by  General  Clinton,  captured  Savannah  and  defeated 
General  Ash  at  Brier  Creek.  One  year  after,  the  French  fleet 
returned  from  the  AVest  Indies,  and  appeared  oft"  Savannah  (1779 
A.  D.)  It  assaulted  the  city,  with  General  Lincoln,  but  the  attack 
was  repulsed;  after  this  the  fleet  sailed  home. 

The  next  year  (1780  A.  D.)  Clinton  took  Charleston  with 
about  5,000  men.  Gates  was  defeated  at  Sander's  Creek.  Marion, 
Sumter,  and  other  dashing  officers,  however,  collected  irregular 
troops,  and  carried  on  a  partisan  warfare.  Eight  of  them  attacked 
and  defeated  a  large  force  of  British  and  royalists  on  King's  Moun- 
tain. At  Cowpens,  General  Morgan  whipped  the  British  cavalry^ 
leader,  Tarleton.  General  Green  attacked  the  British  at  Guilford 
Court  House,  at  Ninety-six  and  Eutaw  Springs,  but  the  actions  were 
not  decisive. 

Some  other  incidents  of  these  campaigns  must  yet  be  mentioned. 

What  of  Spain,  Holland  and  Hyder  Ali  ?.  Why  was  the  war  continued  ?  What 
of  Joseph  II.  ?  Of  Frederic  II.  ?  Of  German  mercenaries  ?  Give  an  account  of 
the  operations  of  the  French  fleet.  Who  captured  .Savannah  ?  W^hat  city  did 
Clinton  take  the  next  year  ?  What  officers  carried  on  a  partisan  warfare  ?  Who  was 
successful  on  King's  Mountain  ?  Who  at  Cowpens  ?  At  Guilford  Court  House  >' 
At  Ninety-six  ?     At  Eutaw  Springs  ? 


222 

During  the  summer  of  1779,  the  American  commissioners  at  Paris 
fitted  out  a  squadron,  which  was  placed  under  command  of  Paul 
Jones,  a  brave  Scotch-American.  He  fell  in  with  two  English 
frigates  convoying  a  fleet  of  merchantmen,  attacked  them,  and  after 
a  bloody  fight,  captured  both. — General  Benedict  Arnold  had  been 
court-martialed  for  appropriating  public  money,  but  was  forgiven  by 
Washington,  and  put  by  him  in  command  of  the  fortress  of  West 
Point.  Being  filled  with  a  desire  for  revenge,  Arnold  promised  to 
General  Clinton  in  New  York,  to  deliver  up  West  Point  for  a  reward 
of  10,000  pounds  sterling  and  a  general's  commission  (1780  A.  D.) 
The  general  sent  Major  Andre  to  him  for  a  personal  interview,  who, 
when  returning  in  disguise,  was  seized  by  three  militiamen,  and  hung 
as  a  spy.  Arnold  escaped  to  a  British  vessel.  Congress  gave  each 
of  the  captors  a  medal,  and  a  pension  for  life. — In  the  course  of  the 
war  the  paper  money  of  congress  depreciated  greatly  in  value.  It 
took  thirty,  and  at  last  fifty  and  sixty  dollars  of  it  to  make  one  dollar 
in  specie.  It  finally  became  impossible  to  purchase  provisions  with 
this  currency.  Washington  had  to  take  supphes  from  the  surround- 
ing country.  The  winter  of  1780-1 781  brought  new  sufferings  to 
his  soldiers,  and  1,300  of  the  Pennsylvania  fine  left  the  camp  and 
marched  for  Philadelphia  in  order  to  demand  relief  from  congress. 
A  committee  of  congress  met  them  at  Princeton,  satisfied  their  de- 
mands, and  they  returned  to  camp.  In  order  to  better  the  con- 
dition of  the  army,  congress  appointed  Robert  Morris,  a  wealthy 
Philadelphia  merchant,  financial  agent  of  the  government. 

At  last  (178 1  A.  D.)  the  decision  of  the  long  contest  drew  near. 
At  Yorktown,  in  Virginia,  Cornwallis,  the  British  general,  fortified 
himself,  because  Clinton,  in  New  York,  wished  him  to  be  on  hand 
in  case  Washington  should  attack  New  York.  Washington  really 
had  formed  the  design  of  attacking  the  British  in  New  York ;  but 
he  now  gave  it  up,  as  he  thought  he  could  accomplish  more  by 
striking  a  blow  at  Cornwallis  in  Virginia.     He,  however,  continued 

What  of  Paul  Jones  ?  Give  an  account  of  Benedict  Arnold's  treason.  What 
of  Major  Andre  ?  How  was  he  captured  and  punished  ?  How  were  his  captors 
rewarded  ?  In  what  condition  was  the  paper  money  of  congress  ?  What  bad 
effects  did  its  depreciation  produce  ?  What  of  the  Pennsylvania  soldiers  ?  Who 
was  appointed  financial  agent  ?  Where  was  the  contest  of  the  United  States 
with  Great  Britain  finally  decided  ?  W%  did  Cornwallis  fortify  himself  at 
Yorktown  ?  What  design  had  Washington  really  formed  ?  Why  did  he  give  it 
up  ?  In  what  manner  did  he  deceive  Clinton  ?  When  did  he  march  for  York- 
town  ? 


223 

to  act  so  as  to  make  Clinton  think  he  was  really  going  to  attack 
New  York.  In  September,  when  everything  was  ready,  he  suddenly 
drew  off  and  made  forced  marches  for  Yorktown.  Here,  united 
with  Lafayette,  Kosciusko  and  the  French  general,  he  surrounded  the 
British  army  from  the  land  side,  while  the  French  fleet  blocked  up  the 
British  by  sea.  Cornwallis  stood  the  siege  for  three  weeks.  Fmd- 
ing  his  situation  hopeless,  he  surrendered  his  army  of  over  7,000 
men  with  the  implements  of  war  (19th  of  October).  After  this 
blow  England  abandoned  all  hope  of  subduing  her  colonies.  She 
offered  them  first  a  separate  peace,  and  consented,  as  the  demand 
was  rejected,  to  general  peace  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  (3d  of  Sept., 
1783).  By  this  treaty  Great  Britain  acknowledged  the  independ- 
ence of  the  United  States.  Their  boundaries  were  agreed  upon  as 
extending  northward  to  the  Great  Lakes,  and  westward  to  the  Missis- 
sippi.— The  siege  of  Gibraltar,  begun  during  this  war  by  the  Span- 
iards, is  yet  to  be  mentioned.  Elliott,  the  English  general,  defended 
the  fortress  for  three  years,  and  finally  destroyed  their  floating  bat- 
teries with  red-hot  cannon  balls. 

To  the  young  republic  the  care  of  framing  a  suitable  federal 
constitution  still  remained.  A  convention  of  delegates  from  all  the 
States  met  for  this  purpose  in  Philadelphia.  But  when  they  con- 
sidered the  old  constitution  (adopted  in  1777,  and  called  the  "Arti- 
cles of  Confederation"),  they  found  it  so  faulty  that  it  was  resolved 
to  form  a  new  constitution.  It  was  framed,  and  adopted  by  a 
majority  of  the  people  (i  787-1 789  A.  D.)  Washington  was  twice 
president  of  the  United  States,  the  capital  of  which  received  his 
name.  He  administered  the  laws  with  vigor  and  wisdom.  After 
the  expiration  of  his  terms  he  returned  to  his  country  home  at 
Mount  Vernon,  where  he  died  in  1799,  praised  by  his  feflow-citizens 
as  the  founder  of  their  liberty.  In  his  last  will  he  declared  his 
slaves  free,  and  bequeathed  considerable  sums  for  the  foundation  of 
a  university,  and  a  free  school  for  poor  children.  His  friend  Frank- 
lin had  died  several  years  before  (1790  A.  D.)  He  also  had  be- 
queathed large   sums   for  the  establishment  of   useful   institutions. 

How  was  the  British  army  hemmed  in  by  land  and  sea  ?  How  long  did  Corn- 
wallis stand  the  siege  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  capitulation.  What  was  the 
result  of  the  victory  ?  Give  the  date  of  the  treaty.  What  did  this  treaty  acknowl- 
edge ?  State  what  is  said  of  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States.  What  of  the 
siege  of  Gibraltar  during  this  war  ?  What  of  the  origin  of  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States  ?  Who  was  the  first  president  ?  What  was  his  last  will  ?  What 
legacies  did  he  bequeath  ? 


224 

The  National  Assembly  of  France  publicly  mourned  his  demise. 
Below  his  bust  they  wrote  the  words  :  "  He  seized  the  lightning 
from  the  heaven,  and  the  sceptres  from  the  tyrants  "  (eripuit  fulgus: 
coelis  and  sceptra  tyrannis). 


SEOOro  OHAPTEE-HISTOKY  OF  CIVILIZATION. 


§  94.     Political  Condition  of  Europe.     Constitution  of  the 
United  States. 

In  Europe  the  motive  of  the  political  actions  was  no  longer 
religious  inspiration,  but  narrow-minded  policy.  It  was  the  princi- 
ple of  politics  to  preserve  the  equilibrium  between  the  separate 
States,  especially  between  France  and  Austria.  The  nations  were 
little  more  than  a  property  of  the  governing  families.  Their  liberty 
and  independence  was  out  of  the  question.  The  luxury  of  the 
courts  and  the  standing  armies  consumed  the  blessings  of  nature 
and  the  fruits  of  labor.  Agriculture  and  industry,  in  fact,  throve,, 
but  the  landlords  and  the  owners  of  factories,  for  the  most  part, 
earned  the  profit  of  the  workmen.  In  Germany,  especially,  the 
two-fold  yoke  of  the  landlords  and  the  sovereigns  oppressed  the 
people.  The  meetings  of  the  diets  were  changed  into  mere  con- 
gresses of  embassadors ;  and  in  Switzerland  the  levying  of  mercen- 
aries continued. 

In  America,  William  Penn  gave  to  his  colony  an  excellent  consti- 
tution ;  the  two  principal  points  in  his  legislation  were  civil  and  relig- 
ious liberty.  He  declared  to  the  people  :  "  You  shall  be  governed  by 
laws  of  your  own  making.  As  liberty  of  conscience  is  a  right  which 
all  men  have  received  from  nature  with  their  existence,  it  is  resolved 
that  nobody  shall  be  compelled  to  assist  at  any  kind  of  pubHc  wor- 
ship." Agriculture  and  commerce  should  be  the  principal  founda- 
tion of  his  colony.  Down  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
colonies  were  all  under  the  dominion  of  the  crown  of  England  but 

How  did  the  National  Assembly  of  France  manifest  its  grief  when  Franklin 
died  ?  What  words  were  written  below  his  bust  ?  ^  94.  What  was  the  motive 
for  political  actions  in  Europe  ?  What  was  the  principle  of  politics  ?  How  were 
the  nations  considered  by  the  sovereigns  .-*  How  were  the  blessings  of  the  coun- 
tries consumed  ?  Who  earned  the  profit,  for  the  most  part,  from  real  estates  and 
factories  ?  Who,  in  America,  gave  to  his  colony  a  good  constitution  ?  What 
were  its  two  principal  points?  What  did  he  say  about  liberty  of  conscience? 
What  should  be  the  foundation  of  his  colony  ? 


225 

governed  in  different  ways,  mostly  by  royal  governors,  who  were 
appointed  by  the  crown ;  some  by  proprietors,  as  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland ;  otliers  by  charters  given  by  the  king,  and  granting  certain 
political  rights  and  privileges,  as  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island. 

Penn's  constitution  in  later  time  became  the  foundation  of  the" 
constitution  of  the  United  States.  According  to  this  document, 
they  form  a  confederacy  consisting  of  different  independent  repub- 
lics, which,  by  the '  general  congress,  are  united.  This  congress 
has  the  right  to  make  contracts,  to  declare  war,  to  make 
general  laws  and  to  levy  taxes.  It  is  composed  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  and  of  the  Senate;  its  members  are  the 
delegates  of  the  different  States.  The  executive  power  belongs 
to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  he  is  also  the  general-in- 
chief  of  the  army  and  appoints,  as  a  rule,  the  civil  officers  of  the 
United  States,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  Both  he  and  the 
members  of  Congress  are  periodically  elected.  No  law  can  be 
made  against  liberty  of  religion  and  the  press,  nor  against  the  right 
to  petition  the  government.  The  constitutions  of  the  single  States 
are  framed  upon  similar  principles.  Every  citizen  is  bound  to  mih- 
tary  service.  In  the  United  States  there  is  neither  a  State  Church 
nor  a  caste  of  nobility. — Slavery  was  tolerated  in  the  Southern  States. 

§  95.     Condition  of  the  Church.    Voltaire.    J.  J.  Rousseau, 
Abolition  of  the  Order  of  Jesuits. 

Rehgious  toleration  was  almost  unknown  in  Europe,  proof 
of  which  is  seen  in  the  persecutions  of  the  Protestants  in  France, 
Hungary  and  England  (see  §  85,  §  87  and  §  88).  In  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Saltzburg  also  20,000  Protestants  had  to  emigrate, 
because  persecuted  by  the  bishop  (1731  A.  D.)  Single  individuals 
were  also  persecuted.     When  J.  J.  Rousseau  pubHshed  his  far-famed 

By  whom  were  the  colonies  governed  ?  Especially  Pennsylvania  and  Maiy- 
land  ?  Massachusetts,  etc.  ?  Give  the  outlines  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  What  do  they  form  ?  What  rights  has  the  congress  ?  How  is 
it  composed  ?  To  whom  belongs  the  executive  power  ?  What  other  preroga- 
tives does  the  President  possess  ?  What  of  the  term  of  the  offices  of  the  Presi- 
dent and  of  the  members  of  congress  ?  What  of  liberty  of  religion  and  the 
press  ?  Of  the  right  of  petition  ?  How  are  the  constitutions  of  the  single  States 
framed  ?  To  what  service  is  every  citizen  bound  ?  Is  there  in  the  United 
States  a  State  Church  or  a  caste  of  nobility  ?  In  what  part  of  the  Union 
was  slavery  tolerated?  §95.  What  about  religious  toleration  in  Europe  ?  Give 
examples.     How  was  J.  J.  Rousseau  and  his  book  "  Emile"  treated  ? 

(15) 


226 

book  "  Emile/'  it  excited  the  hatred  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant 
clergy;  the  book  was  burned  in  Paris,  torn  into  pieces  by  the  hang- 
man in  Geneva,  and  he  himself  banished  from  this  city,  though  he 
was  a  citizen  of  it. 

North  America  was  more  tolerant  as  regards  religious  liberty. 
"William  Penn  and  the  charter  of  Rhode  Island  granted  liberty  of 
conscience,  yet  even  here  some  instances  of  persecution  occurred. 
When  the  Quakers  settled  among  the  Puritans  in  New  England,  violent 
religious  quarrels  arose  between  the  two  sects.'  The  Quakers  were 
banished,  and  if  they  returned  to  the  colony,  flogged,  imprisoned 
and  executed.  After  some  time  capital  punishment  was  abolished. 
Presumptive  witches,  too,  were  often  accused  of  sorcery,  and  several 
were  burned  at  the  stake. — Sectarianism  was  increasing.  In  the 
Protestant  Church  the  Quakers,  Pietists  and  Herrenhuters  took 
origin,  and  aside  from  many  sound  principles,  they  confessed  also 
some  eccentric  opinions. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  epoch  of 
Rationalism  began,  as  Hberal  authors  commenced  to  interpret  the 
Bible  in  such  a  manner  that  its  contents  would  harmonize  with  the 
dictates  of  reason.  The  Deists  attacked  every  revealed  religion, 
preserving  only  the  belief  in  God  (Deus).  Voltaire,  J.  J.  Rousseau 
and  Thomas  Paine  are  the  most  prominent  among  them.  The  for- 
mer wielded  the  weapons  of  wit  and  irony  against  superstition  with 
great  success;  on  the  contrary,  it  was  warmth  of  feehng  by  which 
Rousseau  promoted  religious  enlightenment.  Thomas  Paine,  in  his 
book,  "The  Age  of  Reason,"  subjected  the  Bible  to  severe  criticism. 

A  hard  blow  was  struck  at  papacy  during  this  period  by  the 
abolition  of  the  Order  of  Jesuits.  As  their  general  procurator  in 
France  transmitted  a  large  sum  for  a  debt  to  a  trading-house  in 
Marseilles,  and  the  money  was  captured  by  the  English,  that  house 
demanded  payment  from  the  entire  Order  in  France;  as  it  was 
refused,  a  law-suit  was  commenced  against  it,  which  brought  on  an 
examination  of  its  inner  organization.  Choiseul,  minister  of  Louis 
XV.,  found  that  the  society  was  endangering  the  State ;  it  was  there- 
fore abolished  (1764  A.  D.) 

Where,  in  America,  was  liberty  of  conscience  granted  ?  How  did  the  Puri- 
tans in  New  England  deal  with  the  Quakers  and  witches?  What  new  sects 
originated  in  the  Protestant  Church  ?  What  of  Rationalism  ?  Of  Deists  ? 
Give  the  names  of  some  prominent  Deists.  By  what  methods  did  Voltaire  and 
Rousseau  attack  superstition  ?  By  what  incidents  was  the  abolition  of  the  Order 
of  Jesuits  in  France,  Spain  and  Portugal  brought  about  ?  What  did  the  Order 
in  France  refuse  to  pay  ?     What  minister  caused  its  abolishment  ?     Why  ? 


227 

The  Spanish  Jesuits  had  founded  a  State  in  Paraguay  and  Uru- 
guay, which  they  governed  under  Spain's  sovereignty.  As,  at  that 
time,  Spain  intended  to  cede  some  portions  of  that  State  to  Portu- 
gal, the  natives,  led  by  the  Jesuits,  opposed  the  government  and 
commenced  war.  Besides,  the  Jesuits  in  Portugal  were  said  to 
have  participated  in  a  secret  conspiracy  against  King  Joseph  I. 
Therefore,  Pombal,  the  energetic  minister  of  the  king,  required  the 
pope  to  abolish  the  Order  in  Portugal,  and  as  he  did  not  consent  to 
do  it,  the  minister  abolished  it  himself,  and  dispatched  the  Fathers 
to  Rome.  Their  goods  were  confiscated;  the  w^ar  in  Paraguay 
caused  also  their  suspension  in  Spain  (1767  A.  D.)  In  one  day 
their  colleges  were  closed,  their  treasures  seized,  and  they  them- 
selves carried  to  Rome.  Pope  Clemens  XIV.  (Ganganelli),  at  last 
abolished  the  Order  in  all  countries  (1773  A.  D.) ;  it  was  tolerated 
only  in  Russia  and  Prussia. 

^  96.     Arts  and   Sciences.     Inventions.     Cook's   Voyages 
of    Discovery. 

Civilization  spread  in  Europe,  affecting  even  the  lower  ranks. 
New  universities  were  established,  and  public  libraries,  observatories, 
botanical  gardens,  academies,  normal  schools,  ladies'  seminaries  and 
institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  founded.  In  the  United  States 
were  founded,  during  this  period.  Harvard  University  (1636  A.  D.), 
William  and  Mary  College  (1692  A.  D.),  Yale  College  (1700  A.  D.) 
and  Brown  University  (1764  A.  D.)  The  first  newspaper  was 
printed  in  Boston  (1704  A.  D.) 

In  France,  under  Louis  XIV.,  the  sciences  and  arts  celebrated 
their  golden  era.  All  were  cultivated  in  special  academies.  French 
became  the  favorite  language  of  the  courts  and  well-educated  peo- 
ple. Paris  was  the  center  of  modern  culture.  Some  of  the  most 
renowned  artists  and  scholars  of  that  country  were  Peter  Corneille 
(le  Cid)  and  Racine  (Iphigenie),  tragic  poets,  and  Moliere,  the 
greatest  writer  of  comedies.     His  best  plays  are  "The  Miser"  and 

What  had  the  Spanish  Jesuits  founded  in  Paraguay  and  Uruguay?  Who 
commenced  war  against  the  government  ?  Who  were  the  leaders  of  the  war  ? 
How  were  they  punished?  What  was  the  reason  of  their  suspension  in  Por- 
tugal ?  Who  abolished  the  Order  in  all  countries  ?  §  96.  What  was  the  condi- 
tion of  civilization  in  Europe  ?  By  what  institutes  was  it  promoted  ?  What 
universities  and  colleges  were  founded  in  the  United  States  ?  Under  whom  did 
arts  and  sciences,  in  France,  celebrate  their  golden  era  ?  Which  was  the  favorite 
language  of  the  courts  ?  What  city  was  the  center  of  modern  culture  ?  Name 
tragic  poets.     Who  wrote  the  best  comedies  ? 


228 

**  Tartuffe."  In  the  latter  play  he  represents  a  hypocrite  who,  under 
the  mask  of  piety,  hides  a  vicious  life.  Others  on  the  hst  were : 
Boileau,  the  French  Horace ;  La  Fontaine  and  Florian,  fabulists ; 
Fenelon,  author  of  Telemaque,  a  novel  which  was  translated  into  all 
languages  of  Europe;  Montesquieu,  who  in  his  work,  "Spirit  of  the- 
Laws,  "  recommends  England's  constitution  as  the  best ;  the  natu- 
ralist Bufibn,  and  the  two  philosophers,  Voltaire  and  J.  J.  Rousseau 
(who  both  died  in  the  same  year,  1778  A.  D.)  Voltaire  was  also 
poet,  historian  and  mathematician.  Some  of  his  best  works  are : 
"The  Henriade,"  an  epic  poem,  in  which  he  celebrates  Henry  IV. ; 
his  plays,  "  Death  of  Caesar"  and  "Zaire,  "  and  the  life  of  Charles 
XII.  Rousseau  wrote  "  Emile,  "  and  "  The  Social  Contract."  The 
first  work  treats  of  education  and  instruction  ;  the  second  of  demo- 
cratic constitution.  Philosophers  :  Bayle  and  Descartes ;  pulpit 
orators,  Bossuet,  Bourdaloue  and  Massillon  ;  novelists,  Le  Sage  (the 
adventures  of  "  Gil  Bias,  "  and  the  "  Limping  Devil,"  both  satiric 
fictions,  picturing  the  dissolute  manners  of  his  age),  etc.  Both  works 
received  much  praise.  The  gigantic  work  of' the  encyclopedists 
d'Alembert,  Diderot  and  others  comprises  all  sciences  and  arts. 

England  emulated  France  in  superiority  of  its  civilization,  and 
even  surpassed  it  in  political  eloquence,  as  well  as  in  the  mathemat- 
ical and  philosophical  sciences.  Some  of  her  poets  were  :  Gold- 
smith ("The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  "The  Deserted  Village,"  "She 
Stoops  to  Conquer  "),  Young,  Pope  ("  The  Rape  of  the  Lock"), 
Richard  B.  Sheridan  ("The  School  for  Scandal"),  Thomson,  etc. 
The  latter,  in  the  Seasons,  described  the  charms  of  nature.  Essay- 
ists :  Addison  ("The  Spectator"),  Steele  ("The  Tattler"),  and 
Dean  Swift.  Philosophers:  Locke  (Essay  on  Human  Under- 
standing), etc.  Among  the  parliamentary  orators  were :  William 
Pitt,  father  and  son.  Fox  and  Burke.  Noted  astronomers :  Hallai, 
Newton  (who  already,  when  twenty-four  years  old,  made  great 
discoveries  in  mathematics),  and  Herschel,  a  German,  who  resided 
in  London,  and  aided  by  his  gigantic  telescope,  gready  enlarged 
the  knowledge  of  the  starry  heavens.- 

Among  the  Americans  FrankHn  excelled  in  philosophical  and 
practical  writings.     Thomas   Paine,  by  his  theological  and  political 

Who  is  represented  by  "  Tartuffe  ?  "  What  fabulists  ?  What  of  Telemaque  ? 
What  did  Montesquieu,  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  M^rite  ?  What  the  encyclopedists  ? 
In  what  sciences  did  England  surpass  France?  Name  some  English  poets, 
philosophers,  orators  and  astronomers;  some  American  authors  ;  some  German 
mathematicians,  philosophers,  poets,  pedagogues  and  composers. 


229 

works  ("  Common  Sense,  "  "The  Crisis").    Holland:  Spinoza,  one 
of  the  greatest  philosophers  of  his  age  (1677  A.  D). 

Germany  was  sHghtly  less  advanced  in  civiHzation.  Still,  it 
already  had  great  mathematicians,  e.  g.^  Fahrenheit,  and  sagacious 
philosophers,  as  Thomasius,  who  fearlessly  opposed  the  trials  of 
witches,  Leibniz,  Lessing,  but  especially  Kant.  The  most  eminent 
poets  were  Lessing,  author  of  the  plays  "  Emilia  Galotti,"  "  Minna 
von  Barnhelm,"  and  "  Nathan  the  Wise."  In  the  latter  he  exposes 
the  sad  consequences  of  superstition,  and  recommends  religious 
toleration.  There  were  besides,  Klopstock,  author  of  "  The  Mes- 
siade,"  Wieland,  Goethe  and  Schiller  (see  §  133)-  Basedow  and 
Salzman  deserved  well  in  the  department  of  education.  Celebrated 
composers  were  Gluck,  Joseph  Haydn  and  Mozart. — In  Sweden 
Linne  classified  all  plants  according  to  the  number  of  their  stamens. 

In  Italy  sciences  and  arts  were  sinking ;  but  still  the  poets  Gozzi 
and  Alfieri,  the  mathematicians  Cassini  and  Toricelli,  and  the  statu- 
ary Canova  were  prominent. 

In  this  period  were  invented :  The  barometer,  the  thermometer, 
the  air-pump  and  the  lightning  rod  (by  FrankHn,  1752  A.  D.);  the 
balloon  by  Montgolfiere  (1783  A.  D.),  and  the  steam  engine  by 
Watt  (1764  A.  D.) 

Under  George  III.,  James  Cook  made  his  great  voyages  of  dis- 
covery. In  his  youth  he  was  a  sailor,  then  became  crew's  cook, 
and  later  assistant  of  the  pilot.  Understanding  the  advantage  of 
mathematical  knowledge,  he  provided  instruction  for  himself  by^ 
his  savings,  and  became  a  great  navigator.  His  first  voyage  was  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean  (i 768-1 771  A.  D.)  In  New  Zealand  he  dis- 
covered hemp ;  on  the  second  voyage  he  discovered  New  Caledonia, 
South  Georgia  and  the  Sandwich  land.  On  the  third,  he  should 
examine  if  it  was  possible  to  pass  from  the  Atlantic  through  Behr- 
ing's  Straits  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  if,  by  this  passage  the  East 
Indies  could  be  reached  sooner  than  by  sailing  around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  He  found  in  that  northern  region,  in  the  midst  of 
summer,  impenetrable  masses  of  ice,  so  that  he  was  persuaded  that 

Who  was  the  great  German  philosopher  ?  What  does  Lessing  recommend  in 
■**  Nathan  the  Wise  ?  "  What  renowned  botanist  of  Sweden  classified  all  plants  ? 
What  eminent  poets,  mathematicians  and  statuaries  in  Italy  ?  What  inventions 
were  made  in  this  period  ?  Who  was  James  Cook  ?  In  what  way  did  he  be- 
come a  great  navigator  ?  In  what  ocean  did  he  make  his  first  voyage  ?  What 
discoveries  did  he  make  on  the  second  voyage?  What  was  the  object  of  the 
third  voyage  ?  Why  did  he  not  find  his  enterprise  practicable  ?  Where  was  he 
killed  ? 


230 

his  enterprise  was  impracticable.  He  afterwards  discovered  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  but  was  there  killed  in  a  quarrel  with  the  savages 
(1779  A.  D.) 

KXERCISES. 

Biographies:     Peter  I. — (a)  his  self-education  by  journeys,  {d)  his  reforms, 

(c)  his  conduct  towards  his  domestic  enemies  (towards  his  sister,  first  wife,  son 
and  body-guards);  against  foreign  enemies  (Charles  XII.  and  the  Turks);  (d) 
his  dealings  with  Menshikoff  and  Catharine.  William  Penn. — [a]  founder  of  a 
colony  in  Pennsylvania,  (d)  constitution  of  the  colony.  Frederic  II. — (a)  in  the 
Silesian  wars,  (^)  in  the  seven  years'  war,  (c)  at  the  partition  of  Poland,  (d)  in 
peace.  Joseph  II. — (a)  his  political  and  religious  reforms,  [d)  their  results. 
Washington. — (a)  in  war,  (d)  during  peace.     Franklin — (a)  a  self-educated  man, 

(d)  a  popular  author  and  inventor,  (c)  the  representative  of  the  colonies  in  England, 
{d)  embassador  in  France,  (<»)  his  end. — Describe  the  contest  of  the  United 
States  for  independence  under  the  following  headings:  i.  Causes  of  the  war.  2. 
Forces  of  the  British.  3.  Forces  of  the  Americans,  giving  the  names  of  their 
most  important  patriots  and  allies.  4.  Their  victories.  5.  Their  independence. 
Describe  the  battle  at  Bunker  Hill.  The  constitution  of  the  United  States.  In 
what  countries  were  the  Protestants  persecuted  ?  When  were  the  wars  of  the 
Spanish  and  Austrian  succession  waged  ?  And  when  the  seven  years'  and  the 
American  wars  ?  In  what  wars  did  England  and  Austria  jointly  fight  against 
France  ?  How  many  years  elapsed  from  St.  Bartholomew  to  the  first  partition  of 
Poland  ?  How  long  did  Louis  XIV.,  Peter  I.  and  Frederic  II.  govern  ?  How 
many  years  after  Louis  XIV.  did  Peter  I.  die  ?  Give  the  names  of  two  renowned 
French  authors  who  died  in  the  same  year. 


231 

NINTH    PERIOD 


FrotT]    the   French[    Revolutioq    to  the  Second    Peace  of 

Paris.      Revolutioq  and   Political    Reforms   iq 

France.     Wars  Caused   by   It.     Fronq 

1789  to  1815  A.   D. 


A.    TEENOH  EEVOLUTION. 


1.    POLITICAL  EEFORMS  IN  FRANOE-1789  to  1792  A.  D. 


g  97.     Causes  and  Effects  of  the  French  Revolution. 

The  revolution  of  the  British  colonies  in  America,  in  which 
France  took  such  an  energetic  part,  also  excited  in  this  country  a 
longing  for  similar  rights  and  liberties  as  the  brave  Americans  had 
acquired.  Ingenious  authors  like  Montesquieu,  Voltaire  and  Rous- 
seau enlightened  the  people  concerning  their  rights.  But  the  prin- 
cipal causes  of  the  great  revolution  which  shook  not  only  France, 
but  the  whole  of  Europe,  were  the  great  demoralization  among  the 
higher  ranks  of  that  country,  the  defective  organization  of  the 
State,  and  the  utter  ruin  of  its  finances. 

Nowhere  had  corruption  of  morals  permeated  everything  so 
deeply  as  among  the  higher  castes  of  France.  Luxury  and  volup- 
tuousness had  their  sway  in  the  courts  of  Louis  XIV.  and  of  the  dis- 
sipated Louis  XV.  Unbounded  were  the  expenses  of  these  kings. 
Besides,  nobility  and  clergy  were  ignorant  and  haughty.  The  kings 
governed  like  tyrants ;  the  offices  were  venal,  the  tribunals  hable  to 
bribery. 

The  public  charges  were  divided  very  unequally.  While  the 
nobility  possessed  immense  property  and  took  hold  of  all  high  civil 
and  military  employments,  they  contributed  almost  nothing  to  the 

§  97-  What  were  the  causes  of  the  French  revolution  ?  How  were  the 
morals  of  the  higher  classes  in  France  ?  What  of  the  expenses  of  the  kings  ? 
Were  the  public  charges  divided  equally  ?  What  of  the  possessions  of  the 
nobility  and  clergy  ?  To  whom  did  the  tithes  belong  ?  What  did  the  nobility 
and  clergy  contribute  to  the  public  taxes  ? 


232 

public  taxes.  The  numerous  clergy  held  the  finest  part  of  the 
country,  collected  the  tithes  in  the  whole  realm,  and  offered  nothing 
for  that  to  the  State  but  voluntary,  insignificant  presents.  Besides, 
there  was  an  army  of  privileged  ones  who  were  largely  exempted 
from  taxation.  The  people,  on  the  contrary,  succumbed  under  the 
pressure  of  the  public  charges.  Land-taxes,  poll-taxes,  property- 
taxes  and  a  hundred  other  taxes  were  devised  to  exhaust  their 
resources.  The  peasant,  especially,  was  obliged  to  pay  tithe; 
besides,  he  was  a  bondman,  and  forced  to  do  socage-service.  And 
finally,  the  common  people  had  to  do  military  service,  while  noble 
and  distinguished  men  performed  it  only  at  their  own  free  w411. 

The  last  shock,  which  caused  the  outburst  of  the  revolution, 
was  given  by  the  ruin  of  the  finances;  for  the  pubUc  debts  had 
increased  to  an  enormous  degree,  and  the  income  of  the  State  did 
not  any  longer  suffice,  by  a  large  sum,  to  cover  the  expenses.  The 
people  could  not  give  any  more,  and  the  nobility  and  clergy  would 
not,  therefore  revolution  began.  Unhappy,  indeed,  were  its  first 
effects  upon  France  and  Europe.  Still,  the  former  gained,  forever, 
a  free  constitution,  and  in  the  other  countries  of  Europe  the  rights 
of  the  citizens  ever  since  were  more  highly  appreciated. 

I  98.    National  Assembly.    The  Third  Estate.    Mirataeau. 

Louis  XVL,  called  the  Long-desired,  ascended  the  throne  in 
1774.  His  minister  of  finances,  Necker,  the  friend  of  the  people, 
demanded  a  limitation  of  the  expenses  of  the  court,  and  a  reform 
of  the  system  of  taxes;  but  the  court  and  the  higher  orders 
opposed  this.  He,  therefore,  resigned  his  office,  and,  regretted 
by  the  whole  nation,  left  the  country  (1781  A.  D.)  New  loans 
were  procured,  but  finally,  when  it  was  impossible  to  longer  meet 
the  exigencies  of  the  government,  the  king  called  an  assembly 
of  the  notables — the  chiefs  of  the  nobihty  and  clergy,  and  some 
deputies  of  the  towns — in  order  to  deliberate  with  them  on  the 
necessary  ways  and  means  in  order  to  save  the  State.  As  the  minis- 
ter of  finances  proposed  a  general  taxation  of  the  nobiHty  and 
clergy,  as  well  as  of  the  commons,  they  vehemently  opposed  it,  and 

Was  the  peasant  free  ?  What  about  military  service  ?  What  gave  to  the 
revolution  the  last  shock  ?  What  were  the  first  effects  of  the  revolution  ?  What 
its  final  ^in  ?  |  98.  What  did  Minister  Necker  demand  ?  Who  opposed  him  ? 
What  followed  after  his  resignation?  Whom  was  the  king  obliged  to  call? 
What  for  ?  What  did  the  minister  of  finances  propose  ?  How  was  his  demand 
received  ? 


233 

compelled  him  to  run  away.  The  nation  demanded  the  convoca- 
tion of  the  States- General,  because  it  expected  no  relief  but  from 
that  body,  and  the  king,  at  last,  yielded  to  the  demand.  Necker, 
too,  was  re-appointed  minister  of  the  finances.  At  his  advice,  the 
king  declared  himself  to  be  ready  to  give  up  his  unlimited  power, 
and  called  600  delegates  of  the  third  estate,  and  600  more,  partly 
of  the  nobility  and  partly  of  the  clergy. 

They  convened  in  Versailles,  but  the  deputies  of  the  commons 
were  sHghted.  They  were  not  admitted  into  the  rooms  of  the 
king,  like  those  of  the  higher  orders.  They  were  obliged  to  wait 
for  a  time  in  a  shed,  etc.  The  clergy  and  nobility  insisted  that  there 
should  be  three  assemblies,  each  possessing  a  veto  on  the  acts  of  the 
others,  while  the  commons  demanded  that  ail  should  be  united  in 
one  general  assembly,  without  any  distinction  of  orders.  After 
long,  useless  negotiations  the  commons  declared  themselves  the 
"  National  Assembly,"  representing  the  great  majority  of  the  nation. 
The  people  were  delighted  by  this  declaration,  but  the  king  was  so 
provoked  that  he  gave  orders  to  stop  the  sessions  of  the  diet,  and 
locked  up  the  hall  of  their  meetings.  Then  the  commons  assem- 
bled in  the  tennis-court,  and  swore  rather  to  die  than  to  separate  be- 
fore the  promised  State  reform  was  accompHshed.  The  majority  of 
the  clergy  now  united  with  them.  Now  the  king  himself  made  his 
appearance  in  their  midst,  and  expressed  his  displeasure  to  them, 
commanding  them  to  vote  by  orders,  in  three  special  assemblies, 
and  to  separate.  He  went  off.  The  deputies  still  remained  in  their 
seats.  Then  the  royal  master  of  ceremonies  came,  and  repeated 
the  king's  order  to  evacuate  the  hall.  In  this  decisive  moment 
Count  Mirabeau  rose,  exclaiming :  "  Report  to  those  who  sent  you 
that  we  are  here  by  the  will  of  the  nation,  and  that  nothing  but  the 
force  of  bayonets  can  drive  us  away  from  our  seats."  At  the  same 
time  the  delegates  declared  all  who  would  assail  them  traitors  of  the 
country.     The  king,  seeing  the  firmness  of  the  commons,  yielded, 

What  did  the  nation  demand  ?  What  did  the  king  do  ?  W^ho  was  re-ap- 
pointed ?  What  number  of  delegates  was  called  ?  Where  did  they  meet  ? 
How  were  the  deputies  of  the  commons  treated  ?  How  many  assemblies  did 
the  nobility  and  clergy  want  ?  What  did  the  commons  demand  ?  What  declar- 
ation did  they  make  ?  Who  was  provoked  by  their  declaration  ?  What  orders 
did  he  give  ?  What  next  of  the  commons  ?  What  did  they  swear  to  risk  ? 
Who  appeared  in  their  midst  ?  What  oi-der  did  the  master  of  ceremonies  de- 
liver? What  did  Mirabeau  reply?  What  did  the  delegates  then  declare?  What 
was  the  final  effect  of  the  declaration  ? 


234 

because  a  general  insurrection  was  to  be  feared,  and  ordered  the  two 
other  houses  to  unite  with  them. 

I  99.     Taking  the  Bastile.     Abolition  of  Feudal  Servitude. 

But  the  king  had  only  simulated  acquiescence;  he  collected 
50,000  men,  for  the  most  part  foreign  troops,  around  Paris  and  Ver- 
sailles, with  the"  intention  of  dispersing  the  National  Assembly  and 
of  captunng  its  boldest  speakers.  The  city  of  Paris  was  vehemently 
agitated  by  this  measure ;  even  the  women  exhorted  to  a  vigorous 
resistance.  The  French  guards  swore  they  would  not  fight  the 
citizens,  and  other  national  troops  followed  their  example.  The 
National  Assembly  requested  the  king  in  several  addresses  to  with- 
draw th§  foreign  troops,  in  order  that  they  might  be  able  to  deliberate 
in  a  free  and  undisturbed  way  ;  he  proposed  to  the  Assembly  to  with- 
draw to  another  place,  refmote  from  the  capital ;  but  Mirabeau  in- 
sisted upon  the  demand  that  he  should  withdraw  the  troops.  The 
king  persisted  in  his  refusal,  dismissed  Necker,  and  selected  ministers 
from  the  party  of  the  court. 

The  dismission  of  Necker  was  the  signal  of  the  general  insurrec- 
tion in  Paris,  where  the  dissolution  of  the  National  Assembly  and 
an  attack  of  the  foreign  troops  was  feared.  The  alarm-bells  were 
sounded,  arms  hurriedly  forged,  30,000  guns  taken  from  the  hospital 
of  the  invalids,  and  in  two  days  60,000  men  armed.  Now  the  out- 
cry was  heard :  "  No  peace  nor  liberty  as  long  as  the  Bastile  is 
standing!"  The  bands  rushed  upon  the  fortress  (the  14th  of  July), 
and,  assisted  by  the  French  guards,  after  a  few  hours  took  the  place 
which  the  court  imagined  to  be  impregnable.  Its  conquest  cost  the 
life  of  many  citizens ;  but  the  garrison  was  put  to  the  sword,  the 
old  bulwark  of  tyranny  was  demolished,  and  songs  of  liberty 
resounded  throughout  the  city  and  the  whole  country. 

In  Versailles,  meanwhile,  festivals  were  arranged,  at  which  the 
princes  and  princesses  lavished  presents  and  caresses  on  the  soldiers. 
The  night  from  the  14th  to  the  15th  of  July  was  set  down  for  the 
execution  of  a  violent  measure.  The  commander  of  the  royal 
troops  had  received  full  power  to  carry  it  out.     The  king  should 

§99.  Wherefore  did  the  king  collect  an  army?  How  did  this  measure 
affect  Paris  and  the  French  guards  ?  What  did  the  National  Assembly  request 
of  the  king?  What  measures  did  he  take?  Give  an  account  of  the  insurrec- 
tion in  Paris,  and  of  the  capture  of  the  Bastile.  What  was  meanwhile  arranged 
in  Versailles  ?  What  violent  measure  was  to  be  executed  in  the  night  of  the 
14th  of  July  ? 


285 

take  to  flight,  the  National  Assembly  should  be  dissolved,  and  the 
royal  power  restored. 

A  carriage  was  continually  kept  ready  for  the  flight,  and  the 
body-guards  did  not  undress  for  several  days.  The  National  Assem- 
bly knew  all  these  projects.  Afraid  of  being  dispersed  and  of  see- 
ing the  States-Hall  forcibly  locked  up,  it  was  also  sitting  during 
night.  The  capture  of  the  Bastile  released  it  from  all  alarm ;  finally, 
the  king  removed  the  troops  and  again  recalled  Necker. 

Immediately  after  the  14th  of  J  uly,  the  noblemen  left  the  country 
in  large  bands;  the  princes  of  the  royal  house  set  the  example. 
It  was  their  design  to  return  with  open  force,  and,  supported  by  the 
foreign  countries,  to  repossess  themselves  of  their  old  command,  and 
to  be  revenged  by  the  blood  of  their  enemies.  In  order  to  baffle 
their  purpose,  national  guards  were  organized  in  the  whole  realm  ;  in 
eight  days  three  millions  of  citizens  were  armed.  Instead  of  the 
Hly,  the  three-colored  cockade  (a  ribbon  on  the  hat)  was  worn. 

In  Paris,  the  populace  sacrificed  many  victims  to  its  vengeance. 
Hunger,  too,  contributed  to  its  excesses.  Party-leaders  augmented 
the  commotion.  The  duke  of  Orleans  especially  belonged  to  these. 
He  was  a  vicious  man  who,  longing  for  the  crown,  had  bought  many 
followers  among  the  populace.  In  the  provinces  also  anarchy  pre- 
vailed. The  peasants,  crying,  "  Peace  to  the  cottages !  War  to  the 
palaces!"  marched  against  the  castles  of  the  noblemen,  against 
monasteries  and  toll-houses,  and  destroyed  them.  Gangs  of  rob- 
bers, committing  arson,  passed  through  the  land. 

The  National  Assembly  took  serious  .measures  against  the  ex- 
cesses of  the  multitude;  but  Count  Noailles  pointed  out  that  the 
disturbances  and  the  sufferings  of  the  nation  generally  were  caused  by 
the  feudal  services,  under  the  pressure  of  which  it  must  sink  down. 
He,  therefore,  motioned  their  abolishment.  All  the  members  of  the 
Assembly  enthusiastically  consented  to  this.  In  future  there  ought 
to  be  only  one  nation  and  one  realm.  In  a  few  hours  the  fetters 
fell  which  the  French  nation  had  borne  since  the  middle  ages. 
Now,  in  the  memorable  evening  session  of  the  4th  of  August,  were 
abolished  :     Servitude,  the    torture,  every  kind  of  socage,  the  juris- 

Why  did  the  Assembly  also  sit  during  night  ?  What  of  the  emigrants  ? 
Who  set  the  example  for  them  ?  What  was  their  design  ?  Why  were  national 
guards  organized  ?  What  cockade  was  worn  ?  What  excesses  happened  in 
Paris  and  in  the  provinces  ?  What  buildings  did  the  peasants  destroy  ?  Wha 
augmented  the  commotion  ?  What  duke  especially?  How  did  the  Assembly 
act  then  ?  What  did  Count  Noailles  point  out  ?  What  did  he  motion  ?  What 
services  were  then  abolished  ? 


236 

diction  of  the  landlords,  the  tithes,  the  privileges  of  the  higher 
orders  in  the  payment  of  taxes  and  in  the  claims  of  offices  and  dig- 
nities, the  venality  of  the  tribunals,  all  privileges  of  single  provinces, 
towns  and  corporations,  etc.  The  clergymen,  immediately  after 
that,  retracted  what  they  had  granted  in  this  night ;  but  they  were 
answered  that  the  lands  held  by  the  clergy  were  national  property. 

^  lOO.     Conducting  Louis  to  Paris. 


The  king  soon  caused  troops  to  again  come  to  Versailles.  At  a 
banquet  given  to  them  by  the  body-guards,  the  queen  presented 
the  Dauphm  in  her  arms.  They  drank,  with  drawn  swords,  the 
health  of  the  royal  family.  The  national  cockade  was  trampled 
Tinder  foot,  and  the  court-ladies  distributed  the  white  cockade. 
After  three  days  the  festival  was  repeated.  This  caused  general 
indignation  in  Paris.  Added  to  this,  the  refusal  of  the  king  to 
approve  several  articles  of  the  new  constitution,  the  rumor  of  his 
imminent  flight,  and  of  the  secret  preparations  for  a  counter  revolu- 
tion, finally  famine  and  want  of  bread  in  the  capital,  the  city 
believed  there  would  be  no  end  of  its  apprehensions  till  king  and 
National  Assembly  were  again  in  the  midst  of  it.  The  poor,  be- 
sides, hoped  for  bread  and  support  from  the  presence  of  tlie  king. 

Several  thousand  women  of  the  suburbs  marched  to  the  town- 
house,  where  they  armed  themselves,  and  from  there,  led  by  a  citi- 
zen, advanced  towards  Versailles.  They  were  followed  by  a  crowd 
of  savage  men  who  were  armed  with  pikes  and  clubs,  in  order  to 
make  the  body-guards,  but  especially  the  queen,  whose  bad  influence 
upon  the  king  was  known,  feel  their  hatred.  Finally  the  national 
guards  also  set  out  to  conduct  the  king  to  Paris.  Lafayette,  their 
commander,  went  with  them  only  by  compulsion,  and  in  order  to 
prevent  mischief.  The  women,  who  arrived  first,  expressed  their 
distress  to  the  king,  having  had  no  bread  for  their  children  for  three 
days,  and  demanded  of  him,  together  with  the  National  Assembly, 
to  declare  that  he  would  accept  all  articles  upon  which  it  had 
already  resolved,  and  go  to  Paris.     The  king  so  declared.     At  ih'id- 

Mention  some  of  them.  In  what  night  was  this  accomplished?  Who  re- 
tracted the  grant?  ^  loo.  Relate  the  doings  of  the  body-guards  and  of  the 
queen  at  a  banquet.  Whom  did  the  city  desire  to  have  in  her  midst  ?  For  what 
reasons  ?  Who  marched  to  the  town-house  and  from  there  to  Versailles  ? 
Who  followed  the  women?  Why?  Who  set  out  finally?  Why?  What  did 
the  women  demand  ? 


237 

night  the  national  guards  also  arrived.  At  dawn  the  savage  crowd 
mentioned  before,  for  plunder,  assailed  the  castle,  broke  into  the 
apartments  of  the  queen,  who  hardly  could  escape  into  the  room  of 
the  king,  and  murdered  several  body-guards.  But  now  Lafayette 
met  the  enraged  mob,  drove  them  away,  and  restored  peace.  The 
king  allowed  himself  to  be  led  to  Paris  by  the  multitude.  The 
heads  of  two  life-guards  were  carried  on  pikes  in  front  of  the  pro- 
cession. The  National  Assembly  soon  followed.  Louis  protested 
again  that  he  would  give  up  the  rights  of  a  sovereign,  and  become 
the  limited  chief  of  a  republic.  The  nation  received  his  declaration 
with  exultation. 

The  National  Assembly  earnestly  continued  its  task.  In  future 
there  ought  to  be  only  one  chamber  of  the  delegates.  To  the 
king  the  executive  power  and  the  right  of  the  veto  for  a  term  of 
two  legislatures  was  conceded,  and  his  person  declared  inviolable ; 
but  the  ministers  should  be  responsible.  The  church  property  and 
the  crown-demesne  were  declared  national  property,  and  sold  in 
order  to  reimburse  the  national  debt.  In  this  manner  bankruptcy 
of  the  State  was  avoided.  Then  the  aboHshment  of  all  ecclesiastical 
orders  and  convents  followed.  The  Church  ought  to  cease  to  be  a 
State  in  the  State.  The  sustenance  of  the  king  and  clergy  was 
honorably  provided  for.  The  administration  of  justice  was  created 
anew,  especially  the  jury  instituted,  citizenship  conferred  upon  the 
Israelites,  and  all  titles,  escutcheons,  and  marks  of  distinction  of 
the  nobility  were  abrogated.  The  king  consented  to  all  these  reso- 
lutions of  the  Assembly. 

On  the  anniversary  of  rfie  capture  of  the  Bastile  (14th  of  July^ 
1790  A.  D.),  a  general  festival  of  the  covenant  was  celebrated  in 
the  Mars-field  at  Paris,  at  which  the  deputies  of  the  national 
guards  and  of  the  troops  of  the  line,  the  king  and  the  National 
Assembly  swore  to  maintain  the  constitution.  The  same  oath  was 
taken  the  same  day  by  all  citizens  of  France,  assembled  in  large 
camps.  The  priests  alone,  for  the  most  part,  refused  it.  They  even 
provoked  the   people  against  the  National  Assembly,  and,  in  the 

What  did  the  savage  crowd  perpetrate  at  dawn  ?  Who  restored  peace  ?  Wha 
led  the  king  to  Paris  ?  What  of  the  heads  of  the  two  life-guards  ?  What  did 
the  Assembly  continue  ?  What  power  should  the  king  have  ?  Who  should  be 
responsible  ?  How  was  bankruptcy  of  the  State  avoided  ?  What  of  convents  ? 
For  whose  sustenance  was  honorably  provided  ?  What  of  a  jury  ?  Of  titles  and 
other  distinctions  of  the  nobility  ?  Who  consented  to  these  resolutions  of  the 
Assembly?  How  was  the  anniversary  of  the  capture  of  the  Bastile  celebrated? 
Who  swore  allegiance  to  the  constitution  ?     Who  refused  the  oath  ? 


name  of  God,  preached  public  revolt.  The  pope  praised  their 
obstinacy,  and  declared  the  employments  of  those  who  took  the 
oath  forfeited. 

2.    EEVOLUTIONART  WAKS. 


^  lOl.     Flight  of  the  King.    The  Constitution  Finished. 

While  the  National  Assembly  zealously  labored  for  the  welfare 
of  the  country,  the  king  again  planned  his  flight.  Large  sums  of 
money  were  put  aside.  At  the  frontier  of  Luxemburg,  where  he 
intended  to  flee,  an  army  was  ready  to  receive  him,  and  on  differ- 
ent points  of  the  road  leading  there,  divisions  of  troops  were 
placed  for  his  protection.  His  intention  was,  if  his  flight  would 
succeed,  to  return  with  the  emigrants,  and  to  again  subdue 
the  nation  with  the  assistance  of  the  army  and  of  the  German 
emperor.  First  the  women  departed.  Then  (the  20th  of  June) 
the  king,  the  queen,  their  children,  the  Count  of  Provence  (oldest 
brother  of  the  king,  and  later  King  Louis  XVIIL),  and  his  sister 
suddenly  disappeared.  In  a  declaration  left  by  Louis,  and  written 
by  himself,  he  rejected  the  resolutions  of  the  National  Assembly  he 
had  before  this  ratified,  and  made  known  his  design  to  overturn  the 
new  organization  of  the  State.  France  heard  the  news  of  his 
flight  calmly.  The  National  Assembly,  which  was  sitting  continu- 
ously for  seven  days  and  nights,  hastily  made  the  necessary 
preparations  for  the  government  of  the  realm,  and  ordered  all  per- 
sons to  be  stopped  who  would  leave  the  country. 

Meanwhile,  the  king  had  proceeded  -as  far  as  St.  Menehould,  in 
Lorraine.  Here  postmaster  Drouet  recognized  him;  his  son,  in  the 
midst  of  night,  hastened  before  him  to  Varennes.  The  citizens  of 
this  town  blocked  up  the  bridge  over  which  the  king  had  to  ride, 
and  took  him  prisoner.  Now  the  tocsins  were  sounded  all  round, 
and  the  king  had  to  return  to  Paris  between  the  files  of  the  national 
guards.  On  his  arrival  there  a  death-like  silence  prevailed.  Only 
now  and  then  the  cry  was  audible  :  "  God  save  the  nation !  "  All 
heads  remained  covered ;  the  arms  were  lowered,  and  when  Louis 
alighted  at' his  palace,  single  voices  were  heard :  "  To  the  lantern  !  " 

What  did  the  priests  preach?  What  of  the  pope?  ^  10 1.  Give  an  account 
of  the  designs  and  arrangements  of  the  king.  Who  departed  first  ?  Who  after- 
wards ?  What  declaration  did  Louis  leave  ?  What  preparations  did  the  Assem- 
bly make  ?  Who  took  the  king  prisoner  ?  What  had  he  to  do  ?  How  was  he 
received  in  Paris  ? 


239 

In  the  meantime  he  was  suspended  from  his  office ;  still,  the  efforts 
of  the  moderate  party  were  successful,  and  he  was  soon  reinstated. 

After  many  domestic  storms  and  obstacles,  the  National  Assem- 
bly finally  finished  its  grand  work,  and  declaring  the  revolution 
ended,  it  left  to  the  king  to  designate  the  place  and  time  for 
examining  the  constitution,  and,  as  he  pleased,  either  to  accept  or 
reject  it.  He  gave  it  his  approval,  and  confirmed  it  by  oath.  Fes- 
tivals were  celebrated  in  the  whole  realm,  and  a  general  amnesty 
proclaimed.  Besides  the  already  enumerated  articles,  the  constitu- 
tion further  granted  personal  liberty,  equality  before  the  law,  liberty 
of  conscience  and  of  the  press.  The  National  Assembly  dissolved 
itself,  and  the  Legislative  took  its  place  (September  30th). 

Not  long  before  this  Count  Mirabeau,  the  soul  of  the  National 
Assembly  and  the  idol  of  the  people,  had  died.  When  the  nobiHty, 
in  the  election  of  the  ordres,  had  passed  him  unheeded,  he  took 
refuge  with  the  commons,  was  chosen  delegate  by  .them,  and 
defended  their  interests  with  the  greatest  energy.  He  was  the  first 
one  interred  in  the  church  of  St.  Genevieve,  the  temple  of  honor  of 
the  great  French  citizens.  This  privilege,  after  him,  was  conferred 
upon  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  others.  But  when,  in  later  times,  his 
secret  correspondence  with  the  king  and  (jueen  was  discovered,  his 
remains  were  again  removed  from  the  temple. 

I  102.    Legislative  Assembly.   War  of  Austria  and  Prus- 
sia.    Suspension  of  the  King.    The   Jacobins. 

The  emigrants,  the  royal  princes  at  their  head,  together  with  the 
foreign  sovereigns,  rose  against  the  new  constitution.  On  the  fron- 
tier of  the  realm  30,000  emigrants  stood  in  arms,  inciting  the  for- 
eign monarchs  to  wage  war  against  their  country.  Several  of  the 
latter  promised  them  assistance ;  Emperor  Francis  II.  threatened  it 
most  vehemently  of  all.  The  National  Assembly  had  in  vain  pro- 
tested its  pacific  intentions  to  give  up  forever  all  wars  of  conquest, 
and  inserted  the  protestation  even  in  the  document  of  the  constitu- 
tion ;  it  had  in  vain  avoided  everything  that  could  offend  the  em- 

What  could  he  choose  to  do  when  the  Assembly  had  finished  the  work  of  the 
constitution  ?  What  did  he  do  ?  What  further  rights  did  this  document  grant  ? 
Who  took  the  place  of  the  Assembly?  What  of  Mirabeau  ?  Where  was  he  in- 
terred ?  When  were  his  remains  removed  from  the  temple  ?  \  102.  Who 
rose  against  the  new  constitution  ?  How  many  emigrants  stood  in  arms  on  the 
frontier  ?  What  monarchs  promised  them  assistance  ?  What  had  the  National 
Assembly  protested  ? 


240 

peror ;  he  was  bent  upon  war.  When  France  demanded  that  the 
electoral  prince  of  Treves  should  remove  the  armed  emigrants,  and 
in  case  of  refusal,  threatened  war  against  him,  the  emperor  sent 
him  auxiliary  forces,  allied  with  Frederic  William  II.,  king  of  Prus- 
sia, and  posted  several  corps  of  the  army  along  the  French  frontier. 
At  last  he  directly  declared  that  he  and  his  ally  had  resolved  to  re- 
establish the  royal  power  in  France.  Withal,  he  called  the  rulers  of 
that  country  a  furious  party,  endeavoring  to  overturn  all  govern- 
ments. After  this  declaration,  the  Legislative  assembly  almost 
unanimously  resolved  to  wage  war  against  the  sovereign  Francis, 
not  against  his  subjects;  on  the  contrary,  it  promised  to  these 
friendship  and  protection.  (1792  A.  D.)  The  king  of  Prussia,  sev- 
eral other  German  sovereigns,  and  Sardinia,  supported  the  emperor. 
Louis  made  defective  and  slow  preparations  for  war,  secretly  enter- 
taining the  hope  of  seeing  the  arms  of  the  allies  victorious. 

The  war  at  the  beginning  was  unfortunate  for  France.  The 
duke  of  Brunswick,  commander  of  the  united  armies  of  Austria  and 
Prussia,  joined  besides  by  20,000  emigrants,  invaded  the  country 
and  directed  his  march,  without  delay,  towards  the  capital.  In  a 
proclamation  he  ordered  the  nation  to  repent  its  acts  and  to  submit, 
threatening,  in  case  of  resistance,  punishment  and  utter  destruc- 
tion. But  this  outrageous  address  only  tended  to  further  inflame  the 
indignation  of  the  people.  New  multitudes,  determined  to  live  and 
die  for  liberty,  rushed  into  the  camps.  Dumouriez,  at  Grandpre,  in 
the  Champagne,  sustained  an  attack  of  the  more  numerous  enemies 
for  three  days,  and  Kellerman  held  his  ground  at  Valmy  against 
the  terrible  fire  of  the  Prussian  cannons.  After  this  the  allied  army 
retreated,  for  the  National  Convent  had  declared  that  it  was  beneath 
the  dignity  of  a  free  people  to  negotiate  with  the  despots  as  long  as 
they  remained  on  the  soil  of  liberty.  The  national  army  followed 
the  enemies,  and  leagued  with  tempests  and  rains,  annihilated  most 
of  them.  France,  after  a  few  months,  was  entirely  released  from 
the  foreign  mercenaries. 

In  the  meantime,  Louis  XVI.  was  no  longer  king.  The  National 

What  of  the  electoral  prince  of  Treves  ?  Of  the  king  of  Prussia  ?  Of 
Francis  II.?  What  did  the  Legislative  Assembly  declare  against  the  latter? 
Who  supported  him?  What  preparations  did  Louis  make?  How  was  the 
commencement  of  the  war  for  France  ?  What  was  the  nation,  in  a  proclamation, 
ordered  to  do  ?  What  was  the  effect  of  this  proclamation  ?  What  of  Dumouriez 
and  Kellerman  ?  What  were  the  allies  forced  to  do  ?  What  was  the  fate  of 
their  armies  ? 


241 

Assembly  had  already  summoned  the  emigrants  to  return ;  the 
Legislative  Assembly  repeated  the  summons,  menacing  them  with 
severe  penalties.  It  likewise  threatened  the  priests  who  declined  to 
take  the  oath  upon  the  constitution,  with  the  loss  of  their  salary,  and 
imprisonment,  if  they  caused  revolts.  The  king  refused  his  appro- 
bation to  both  decrees,  and  only  suffered  unsworn  priests  in  his 
presence.  Embittered  by  this  resistance,  the  suburbs  of  Paris  rose 
in  revolt.  When  the  proclamation  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick 
appeared,  the  country  was  declared  to  be  in  danger,  and  the  insur- 
rection began  again  (Aug.  lo,  1792  A.  D.)  The  king  sought  shelter 
in  the  hall  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  the  royal  palace  having  been 
taken  by  storm,  and  most  of  the  Swiss  guards,  composed  of  about 
1,000  men,  were  massacred.  Several  thousands  of  the  people  were 
also  killed.  The  Assembly  then  declared  Louis  suspended,  for  the 
reason  that  it  was  impossible  to  save  liberty  and  the  country  in  the 
midst  of  so  many  domestic  and  foreign  dangers,  as  long  as  the 
executive  power  was  in  the  hands  of  a  ruler  who  almost  openly 
conspired  with  the  enemies  of  the  people.  A  National  Convent 
ought  to  govern  in  the  name  of  the  sovereign  people.  The  nation 
and  the  army  consented  to  this  resolution.  Lafayette,  summoning 
his  army  to  protect  the  king  and  the  constitution,  was  forsaken  by 
the  troops  and  compelled  to  flee ;  he  was  seized  by  the  Austrians 
and  kept  in  captivity  for  several  years,  till  Napoleon  released  him. 

The  nearer  the  enemies  advanced,  the  more  infuriate  grew  the 
inhabitants  of  the  capital.  The  king  and  his  family  were  imprisoned 
in  the  Temple ;  several  priests  who  had  refused  to  take  the  oath,  and 
the  followers  of  the  king  who  had  fought  against  the  people  were 
horribly  killed,  and  many  citizens  proscribed.  The  Legislative 
Assembly  had  lost  its  power ;  the  National  Convent  took  its  place 
(the  2 1  St  of  September). 

The  club  of  the  Jacobins  (sans-culottes)*  was  much  to  be 
blamed  for  these  atrocious  deeds.  It  was  so  called  from  the  con- 
vent   where   its   members    assembled.     It    had  been   founded   by 

What  decrees  did  the  king  refuse  to  confirm?  What  of  the  suburbs  of 
Paris  ?  When  did  the  insurrection  begin  again  ?  Mention  the  sad  consequences 
of  it.  Who  was  then  suspended  ?  Why  ?  Who  should  govern  instead  of  the 
king  ?  What  accident  happened  to  Lafayette  ?  Who  released  him  ?  Wlio  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Temple  ?  What  of  the  refractory  priests  and  the  followers  of  the 
king  ?  What  body  politique  took  the  place  of  the  Legislative  ?  What  club  was 
much  to  be  blamed* for  the  atrocities  committed  ? 

*  The  nick-name  sans-culottes  (without  breeches)  was  first   given  by  the  court  party  to  the 
poorest  class  of  people ;  afterwards  it  meant  an  extreme  republican,  a  Jacobin. 
(16) 


242 

patriotic  deputies,  in  order  to  oppose  the  monarchic  club,  and 
became  the  leader  of  many  similar  societies  in  France ;  but  immoral 
and  blood-thirsty  men  later  joined  it  and  corrupted  its  original 
spirit.  Marat,  Danton  and  Robespierre  were  among  the  most 
furious  Jacobins. 

^  103.     National     Convent.      Execution    of    Louis     XVI. 
First  Coalition  War.    Civil  War.     Reign  of  Terror. 

The  Convent,  at  its  first  session,  abolished  the  royal  dignity  and 
declared  France  a  republic.  The  party  of  the  Mountainists,  so 
called  because  they  occupied  the  highest  seats  in  the  convention, 
assisted  by  the  Jacobins,  soon  demanded  also  the  life  of  the  king. 
The  Convent,  mainly  relying  on  secret  papers  which  were  discov- 
ered in  an  iron  safe  behind  a  wall  of  the  Tuileries,  accused  Louis 
of  having  conspired  against  the  liberty  and  security  of  the  State, 
and  condemned  him  to  death  by  a  majority  of  only  26  votes 
out  of  721,  and  the  sentence  was  promptly  executed  (the  21st  of 
January,  1793  A.  D.)* 

The  committee  of  public  welfare,  composed  of  nine  members, 
then  assumed  a  kind  of  dictatorship ;  a  second  committee  ought  to 
take  care  of  the  inner  safety  of  the  realm.  After  the  execution  of 
the  king,  the  fall  of  the  Girondists  followed.  They  constituted  the 
moderate  party  of  the  Convent  who  had  not  desired  the  death  of 
the  king,  and  were  called  so  from  the  department  of  Gironde,  by 
which  their  ablest  members  had  been  elected.  The  pressure  of 
domestic  and  foreign  perils  rendered  the  nation  not  only  blood- 
thirsty and  even  partly  insane,  but  also  daring,  despising  dangers 
and  death.  Irrimediately  after  the  frontiers  had  been  freed,  her 
armies,  led  by  the  brave  Generals  Custine  and  Dumouriez,  invaded 
the  territories  of  the  enemies,  and  conquered  Savoy,  Belgium,  and 
several  fortresses  in  Germany.  The  nations,  tired  of  their  sover- 
eigns, received  them  everywhere  with  joy.     But  the  republic,  intoxi- 

What  was  the  origin  of  its  name  ?  What  was  its  spirit  at  first  ?  Name  some 
of  its  most  furious  members.  §  103.  What  did  the  Convent  decree  at  its  first 
session?  Explain  the  name  "'Mountainists."  Whose  life  did  they  demand? 
Relying  on  what  papers  ?  Was  Louis  condemned  to  death  by  a  great  majority  of 
votes  ?  How  did  Thomas  Paine  vote  ?  When  was  the  king  executed  ?  What 
two  committees  were  established  ?  Whose  fall '  followed  then  ?  Explain  the 
name  "Girondist."  What  of  the  warfare  of  the  French  nation?  What  coun- 
tries did  it  conquer  ?  * 

*  Thomas  Paine,  at  that  time  a  member  of  the  Convent,  did  not  vote  for  the  death  of  the  king. 


243 

cated  by  victory,  forgot  its  former  moderation,  craved  for  conquests, 
challenged  the  sovereigns  and  the  nobility  of  all  countries,  and 
offered  her  alliance  to  all  nations.  In  this  way  France  declared  war 
against  Spain,  Holland  and  England  (in  February  and  March,  1793 
A.  D.)  Victory  again  left  her  banners.  An  attack  of  Holland  was 
a  failure.  The  Netherlands  also  were  again  lost.  Sardinia,  too, 
was  partly  lost.  Two  Spanish  armies  and  a  Portuguese  auxiliary 
corps  invaded  France.  Other  enemies  took  the  frontier  fortresses 
of  the  country.  Finally,  the  flame  of  civil  war  burst  out  and 
spread  everywhere  within  the  country.  The  inhabitants  of  La 
Vendee  were  fighting  for  the  nobility  and  clergy  against  the  armies 
of  the  republic,  defeating  them  many  times.  The  northern  and 
southern  departments  rose  against  the  Mountainists.  Toulon  sur- 
rendered, in  order  to  escape  their  vengeance,  together  with  immense 
stores  and  the  largest  fleet  of  the  realm,  to  the  English  and  Span- 
iards, and  proclaimed  the  son  of  Louis  king.  More  than  one-third 
of  the  nation  waged  open  war  against  the  Convent. 

The  Convent,  however,  did  not  lose  courage  with  so  many  ene- 
mies against  it.  The  nation  was  summoned  en  masse ;  while  the 
younger  citizens  marched  against  the  enemy,  the  rest  prepared  for 
cases  of  emergency.  All  France  became  one  camp ;  everywhere 
the  alarm-bell  was  sounded ;  everywhere  arms  were  forged.  Hun- ' 
dred  thousands  should,  at  all  points,  attack  the  enemy,  and  give  bat- 
tle upon  battle.  Carnot,  a  man  havmg  the  mind  of  the  ancient 
republicans,  was  the  soul  of  this  new  war  system.  The  repubHc 
was  declared  to  be  for  so  long  a  time  in  a  state  of  revolution  till  the 
foreign  powers  would  acknowledge  her  independence,  and  a  revo- 
lutionary government  was  established  (December  4th),  headed  by 
the  committee  of  the  public  welfare.  All  quaked  before  it;  all  its 
measures  were  adopted.     Robespierre  was  its  head. 

The  government  of  the  committee  of  welfare  was  terrible,  but 
it  saved  France.  The  insurrection  in  the  northern  departments  was 
rapidly  suppressed.  In  La  Vendee  the  war  should  be  finished 
within  twenty  days;  this  was  the  order  of  the  Convent.     The  pop- 

What  was  the  republic  craving  for  ?  Against  whom  did  it  declare  war  ?  What 
of  Holland  ?  Of  the  Netherlands  ?  Of  Sardinia  ?  Who  invaded  France  ?  In 
what  provinces  did  civil  war  break  out  ?  What  seaport  surrendered  ?  What 
arrangements  did  the  Convent  make  ?  What  of  the  new  military  system  ?  Of 
Carnot?  Of  the  revolutionary  government?  Who  was  the  head  of  the  com- 
mittee of  public  welfare  ?  How  were  the  rebels  brought  to  terras  in  the  north- 
ern departments  ?     In  La  Vendee  ? 


244 

ulation  all  around  was  summoned ;  fresh  troops  drew  near  and  van- 
quished the  mutineers,  even  before  the  time  fixed.  In  fact,  Bre- 
tagne  now  declared  also  for  them,  and  England  prepared  a  descent 
for  their  support.  Eighty  thousand  new  combatants  replaced  the 
killed,  gained  several  victories,  and  already  drew  near  to  Paris ;  the 
larger  armies,  however,  speedily  advanced 'upon  them  and  struck 
the  blow  of  perdition  (December  12,  13);  20,000  dead  royalists 
covered  the  batde-field.  A  column  of  troops,  called  "  the  infernal,'^ 
passed  through  the  country,  destroying  everything  by  fire,  and  the 
captives,  in  bands,  were  killed  by  swords,  cannons,  or  in  the  waves 
of  the  Loire,  into  which  they  were  plunged  through  the  movable 
bottoms  of  ships.  The  southern  provinces  were  also  compelled  to 
submit  and  feel  the  rage  of  the  victors.  A  special  revolutionary 
army,  with  the  guillotine,  passed  through  the  whole  country,  mur- 
dering all  who  did  not  confess  its  principles.  During  eighteen 
months  over  a  miUion  people  lost  their  lives  by  civil  war ;  as  many 
were  killed  by  the  foreign  wars.  Then,  by  the  guillotine,  expired:: 
Queen  Marie  Antoinette ;  Elizabeth,  the  king's  sister ;  and  many 
other  people  of  the  nobiUty;  the  imprisoned  Girondists,  Bailly, 
Lafayette's  virtuous  friend ;  the  Generals  Custine,  Westerman,  etc. 
The  unhappy  son  of  Louis  died  in  the  Temple,  in  consequence  of 
entire  neglect  and  rough  treatment  (1795  A.  D.)  But  the  duke  of 
Orleans,  Danton,  and  other  Mountainists,  were  also  executed. 
Marat  was  assassinated  by  the  young  heroine,  Charlotte  Corday. 

The  manners  of  the  nation  grew  savage.  A  rude  tone  pre- 
vailed in  the  associations ;  education  and  instruction  were  neglected ; 
academies  and  literary  societies  abolished ;  the  monuments  of  art 
destroyed.  Women  mounted  guard  in  the  Convent.  The  Christian 
religion  was  also  abrogated,  and  in  its  stead  the  Service  of  Reason,  per- 
sonified by  a  beautiful  female,  with  theatrical  show,  established. 

In  the  meantime,  the  armies  of  the  republic  annihilated  also  the 
foreign  enemies.  Two  great  victories,  at  Hondshouten  and  Mau- 
beuge,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sambre,  drove  the  allies  back  from  the 
northern  frontier  (Sept.  8th,  1793  A.  D.)     Next  year,  Pichegru  and 

In  Bretagne?  Give  an  account  of  the  infei-nal  column;  of  the  revolutionary 
army  passing  through  the  country.  How  many  lives  were  lost  during  eighteen 
months  by  civil  war;  how  many  in  the  foreign  wars  ?  Give  the  names  of  some 
persons  who  were  guillotined.  What  of  the  son  of  Louis  XVI.?  Of  Marat  ? 
What  of  the  manners  of  the  nation  ?  Of  the  Christian  religion  ?  Of  the  cult  of 
Reason  ?  What  of  the  victories  of  the  French  at  Hondshouten  and  Maubeuge  ? 
What  of  Pichegru  and  Jourdan  ? 


245 

Jourdan  contended  successfully.  Belgium  was  once  more  con- 
quered; blow  after  blow  was  dealt  upon  the  enemies,  until  they 
were  everywhere  compelled  to  retire  over  the  Rhine.  Pichegru, 
in  the  midst  of  winter,  boldly  passed  over  the  frozen  streams  of 
Holland,  and  with  a  small  army,  which  was  in  want  of  clothing  and 
food,  conquered  the  whole  country  in  three  weeks.  He  was  favored 
by  the  people ;  these  hated  -their  obtruded  governor,  who  took  to 
flight,  and  the  power  of  the  aristocrats  was  overthrown.  The  rep- 
resentatives of  the  people  assembled,  liberty-poles  were  set  up,  the 
people  declared  sovereign,  and  the  country  changed  to  a  republic, 
•confederating  with  France  (1795  A.  D.)  Still  it  was  obliged  to  give 
up  to  the  latter  half  of  its  army  and  part  of  its  fleet.  In  Italy,  too, 
the  French  republic  won  the  victory  (1794  A.  D.),  and  here,- also, 
the  aflection  of  the  people  made  her  conquests  easier.  Even 
greater  was  her  success  in  Spain,  where  Dupommier  gained  the  vic- 
tory, by  the  loss  of  his  life,  in  a  battle  lasting  three  days  (November 
17-20),  and  several  fortresses  were  taken.  Quaking,  Spain  con- 
cluded peace.  Soon  after  this  splendid  success  of  the  French  arms 
the  Terrorists  were  overthrown. 

§  104.      Downfall    of  the    Reign    of  Terror.      Directorial 

Government.    The  Coalition  War  Continued. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

The  cult  of  Reason  did  not  last  long.  It  was  derogated,  on  mo- 
tion of  Robespierre,  by  the  Convent,  and  the  acknowledgment  of  a 
Supreme  Being  proclaimed  (1794  A.  D.)  He  also  caused  festivals 
to  be  appointed  to  Virtue,  Justice  and  Friendship.  Still  he  con- 
tinued his  executions,  thus  contradicting  those  expressions  of 
humanity.  Finally,  even  the  Convent  got  tired  of,  his  tyranny. 
When  he  would  again  proscribe  a  great  number  of  his  adversaries, 
the  Convent  took  him  prisoner;  his  foflowers,  however,  released 
him,  but  he  was  again  seized,  and  though  he  had  his  jaw-bone  frac- 
tured by  a  pistol-shot,  he  was  dragged  to  the  place  of  execution  and 
beheaded.  The  same  doom  also  befell  his  confidants,  St.  Just  and 
Couthon,    the   general  of  the  city-guard,  the  mayor  of  Paris,    the 

Of  Belgium?  Of  Pichegru's  cam'paign  in  Holland?  By  whom  was  he 
favored  ?  How  was  its  government  changed  ?  What  of  Italy  ?  Of  Dupom- 
mier in  Spain?  §  104.  Did  the  cult  of  Reason  last  long?  What  festivals  did 
Robespierre  introduce  ?  Was  he,  for  all  that,  more  humane  ?  What  of  his  end  ? 
Who  had  the  same  doom  ?  How  did  the  spirit  of  the  Convent  become  ?  Whose 
dominion  was  at  an  end  ?     What  did  the  royalists  effect  ? 


246 

president  of  the  club  of  Jacobins,  and  one  hundred  councilors 
and  judges.  The  spirit  of  the  Convent  grew  more  moderate,  relig- 
ious persecutions  ceased,  and  arts  and  sciences  began  to  be  again 
honored.  True,  the  friends  of  the  system  of  terror,  aided  by  some 
suburbs,  yet  excited  several  furious  uproars,  taking  even  the  hall  of 
the  Convent  (May,  1795);  but  they  succumbed  to  the  regular 
power  of  the  Convent.  Their  leaders  were  partly  executed,  partly 
banished,  and  the  dominion  of  the  Jacobins  was  forever  at  an  end. 

But  forthwith  the  adherents  of  royalty  became  bolder  again. 
They,  through  support  from  England  and  the  emigrants,  caused 
formidable  insurrections  in  La  Vendee  and  Paris;  in  the  former 
place  they  proclaimed  the  brother  of  Louis  XVL  king;  in  the  latter, 
theybesieged  the  Tuileries.  They  were  vanquished  in  both  places ; 
in  Paris  by  Napoleon.  The  Convent  then  dissolved  itself,  and  two 
chambers  took  its  place,  called  the  Council  of  the  Old  Ones  and  of 
the  Five  Hundred;  five  directors  should  have  the  executive  power. 

Since  the  downfall  of  the  reign  of  terror,  war  was  waged  without 
energy;  the  armies  of  the  republic  suffered  many  defeats  by  the 
Austrian  generals.  At  last  Napoleon  Bonaparte  restored  the  splen- 
dor of  the  French  arms.  This  greatest  general  of  modern  time 
was  born  in  Ajaccio,  on  the  Island  of  Corsica  (1769  A.  U.)  and 
educated  for  the  position  of  an  officer  in  the  military  schools  of 
Brienne  and  Paris,  where  he  gained  free  admission.  He  liked 
best  to  study  mathematics  and  the  art  of  war.  In  ancient  history 
he  read  the  exploits  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  heroes  with  enthu- 
siasm. He  loved  to  be  alone  and  avoided  the  merry  plays  of  his 
school-mates.  Besides,  he  was  reserved  and  stubborn.  When  still 
a  youth  he  was  employed  as  an  officer  of  artillery.  He  sided  first 
with  the  republicans.  At  the  siege  of  Toulon  he  commanded  the 
artillery ;  the  Convent  was  indebted  to  him  principally  for  the  cap- 
ture of  the  fortress. 

This  young  man  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the  Italian 
army  by  the  directory  ( 1 796  A.  D.)  The  army  was  in  want  of  money, 
clothing  and  provisions ;  Napoleon  pointed  out  to  it  the  rich  coun- 
tries of  the  enemies,  where  it  would  find  abundance  of  supplies,  led 

Who  vanquished  them  in  Paris  ?  What  government  followed  after  the  disso- 
lution of  the  Convent  ?  How  was  war  waged  now  ?  Who  restored  the  splendor 
of  the  French  arms  ?  Give  some  particulars  of  Napoleon's  education.  With 
what  party  did  he  side  first  ?  What  military  service  did  he  do  in  the  siege  of 
Toulon  ?  For  what  army  was  he  appointed  general-in-chief  ?  Give  an  account 
of  his  campaign. 


247 

it  at  once  against  them,  and  vanquished  them  in  rapid  succession  in 
five  battles.  The  king  of  Sardinia  was  compelled  immediately  to 
make  peace,  losing  Savoy.  After  that  Napoleon  rushes  in  upon  the 
Austrian  army,  passes,  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  the  bridge  at  Lodi 
in  a  rapid  march,  without  minding  the  murderous  fire  of  the  ene- 
mies (May  loth),  conquers  the  whole  of  Lombardy,  and  enters 
Milan  triumphantly;  only  Mantua  still  resists.  He  besieges  the 
fortress,  destroys  four  armies  which  hasten  to  the  rescue  (the  third 
in  the  gigantic  battle  at  Arcole,  Novembei*  15,  16,  and  17),  and 
compels  the  commander  to  surrender  with  12,000  soldiers  and  500 
cannons.  The  conquered  lands  obtained  free  constitutions,  and 
formed  the  Cisalpine  republic. 

While  Napoleon  was  fighting  with  such  admirable  success  in 
Italy,  the  Archduke  Charles  defeated  the  French  in  Germany,  and 
forced  them  to  retreat.  France  ofi'ered  peace  to  the  emperor;  but 
he  rejected  it,  declaring  that  he  disavowed  the  French  republic. 
Consequently  Napoleon  advanced  farther  through  Tyrol  and  Corin- 
thia,  and  in  a  quick,  victorious  course,  approached  the  residence  of 
the  emperor.  Now  he  accepted  peace,  which  was  made  at  Campo 
Formio  (1797  A.  D.) ;  he  lost  Belgium  and  his  Italian  States. 
Besides,  the  pope  was  vanquished  (1798  A.  D.),  and  carried  off  into 
captivity,  in  which  he  died.  Finally,  the  French  government  abol- 
ished the  aristocratic  dominion  of  the  cities  in  Switzerland,  and 
established  an  undivided  republic. 

I  lOS.     Napoleon's   Expedition  to   Egypt.     Second  Coali- 
tion War.     Battle  at  the  Pyramids.     Naval  Com- 
bat at  Abukir.     Consular  Government. 

Now  Napoleon  was  sent  with  a  select  army  to  Egypt,  in  order  to 
strike  at  the  Indian  possessions  and  commerce  of  England,  and  to 
undertake  new  conquests  for  France.  He  took  with  him  artisans  of 
all  kinds,  a  complete  collection  of  philosophical  and  mathematical 
instruments,  and  about  a  hundred  of  the  most  illustrious  scientific 
men  of  France,  who  should  investigate  the  antiquities  of  the  land. 

What  was  hi§  success  ?  What  exploit  did  he  accomplish  at  Lodi  ?  What 
country  did  he  conquer  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  siege  of  ^Mantua.  How  many 
armies  did  he  destroy  ?  What  was  the  result  ?  What  government  did  the  Lom- 
bardy obtain?  Describe  the  continuation  and  the  end  of  the  campaign.  What 
countries  did  the  emperor  lose  ?  What  of  the  pope  and  of  Switzerland  ? 
^  105.  What  was  the  next  expedition  of  Napoleon  ?  What  was  the  intention  of 
France  ?     Who  accompanied  Napoleon  ? 


248 

He  proclaimed  to  the  Arabian  population,  which  formed  the 
majority  of  the  inhabitants,  that  he  had  come  to  protect  their 
religion,  to  restore  their  rights  and  punish  their  usurpers,  the  Mame- 
lukes, a  corps  of  horsemen  of  Circassian  origin,  who  were  engaged 
in  the  service  of  the  Turkish  Bey.  Napoleon  attacked  and  van- 
quished them  at  Raminieh  and  at  the  Pyramids  (1798  A.  D.)  But 
Nelson,  the  English  admiral,  defeated  the  French  fleet  in  the  bay  of 
Abukir,  Nine  vessels  of  the  line  were  taken.  The  admiral's  ship 
blew  up  with  one  thousand  men,  and  one  was  burned  by  the  French 
themselves.  Napoleon  himself  besieged  Jean  d'Acre  in  Syria  with- 
out success.  The  French  arms  being  unlucky  in  Europe  also,  and 
the  Directory  having  lost  all  authority  and  consideration,  he  returne'd 
to  France  (1799  A.  D.)  Egypt  yielded  again  to  the  government  of 
the  Porte  (1801  A.  D.) 

While  Napoleon  was  fighting  in  Egypt,  the  second  coaHtion  war 
in  Europe  had  opened  against  France  (1799  A.  D.)  England,  Aus- 
tria, Russia,  Portugal,  Naples,  the  pope  and  the  Turkish  sultan  were 
■combating  the  republic.  At  the  commencement  of  the  war  the 
republicans  fought  successfully.  Naples  and  Tuscany  were  con- 
quered, so  that  France  possessed  the  whole  of  Italy.  But  her 
dominion  did  not  last  long.  The  Austrians  and  Russians,  soon  after, 
conquered  the  Lombardy.  The  impetuous  Suwarrow  was  the 
commander  of  the  latter.  Tuscany,  Naples,  and  the  States  of  the 
Church  were  lost  again.  In  Germany  Archduke  Charles  vanquished 
the  French  at  Ostrach  and  Stockach.  But  at  last  Massena  totally 
defeated  Suwarrow  at  Ziirich  in  Switzerland,  and  saved  France  by 
his  victory.  Paul,  the  dejected  emperor  of  Russia,  recalled  his 
troops. 

When  Napoleon  again  arrived  in  France,  the  hopes  of  all  parties 
were  turned  towards  him.  He  received  the  command  of  the  troops 
stationed  in  Paris  and  near  by,  but  abused  his  power,  causing  those 
directors  who  would  not  voluntarily  abdicate  to  be  taken  prisoners. 
Though  he  had  again  done  allegiance  to  the  constitution  by  oath, 
accompanied    by  grenadiers    he    entered   the   council  of   the  five 

For  what  purpose  ?  What  did  he  proclaim  to  the  Arabian  population  ? 
Who  were  the  Mamelukes  ?  Where  did  Napoleon  vanquish  them  ?  Who  de- 
feated the  French  fleet?  Where?  Give  the  circumstances  of  the  battle. 
What  powers  lormed  the  second  coalition  ?  Where  was  the  French  republic  first 
successful?  What  countries  did  it  then  lose?  Who  was  the  Russian  com- 
mander ?  By  whom  was  he  defeated  ?  Who  vanquished  the  French  in  Ger- 
many ?  What  command  did  Napoleon  receive  after  his  return  from  Egypt? 
How  did  he  abuse  his  power  ?  -  Against  the  directory  ?     Against  the  five  hundred  ? 


249 

hundred  in  order  to  dissolve  them.  Checked  by  their  threats,  he 
appealed  to  the  assistance  of  the  troops,  with  their  help  expelled 
the  members  of  the  council,  and  caused,  instead  of  the  Directory, 
three  consuls  to  be  appointed,  of  whom  the  first  should  possess  the 
highest  power.  He  himself  became  first  consul.  In  this  way  the 
republic  was  transformed  into  a  military  monarchy. 

The  war  against  Austria  and  England  continued.  Napoleon 
secretly,  with  wonderful  boldness,  led  an  army  over  the  Great  St. 
Bernhard,  and  gave  a  bloody  battle  to  the  Austrians  at  Marengo,  in 
Sardinia,  in  which  Desaix,  his  friend,  gained  the  almost  lost  victory 
by  his  heroic  death  (1800  A.  D.)  The  entire  command  of  Italy 
was  given  again  to  France.  In  Germany  Moreau  also  fought  with 
good  success.  He  gained  the  victory  at  Hohenlinden,  in  Bavaria, 
and  invaded  Austria.  The  emperor  had  to  conclude  the  peace  of 
Luneville,  and  to  cede  the  archdukedom  of  Tuscany  (1801  A.  D.) 
Germany  lost  all  provinces  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Mean- 
while a  union  of  the  northern  powers  was  formed  against  England. 
Nelson  defeated  the  Danish  fleet  at  Copenhagen  (1801  A.  D.)  ;  but 
too  weak  to  continue  the  war,  it  also  agreed  to  the  general  peace  at 
Campo  Formio  (1802  A.  D.)  It  was  compelled  to  surrender  almost 
all  the  conquests  it  had  made. 

I  106.    French  Empire.    Third  Coalition  War.     Prusso- 

Russian  War.     Battles  at  Austerlitz,  Jena  and 

Auerstadt,  Eilau  and  Friedland.    The 

Continental  System. 

Napoleon  now  directed  his  efforts  to  the  pacification  and  im- 
provement of  France  ;  by  a  general  amnesty  100,000  emigrants  were 
enabled  to  return ;  a  system  of  public  instruction  was  established, 
and  the  collection  of  the  heterogeneous  laws  of  the  monarchy  and 
the  republic,  into  one  consistent  whole,  under  the  title  of  "  Code  Na- 
poleon," was  commenced — an  undertaking  which  has  covered  the 
name  of  Napoleon  with  glory.  Magnificent  roads,  like  those  over 
the  Alps,  canals,  bridges,  and  improvements  of  all  kinds,  are  to  the 


What  magistrates  did  he  cause  to  be  appointed  ?  Who  became  lirst  consul  ? 
At  what  place  in  Sardinia  did  he  vanquish  the  Austrians  ?  By  whose  death  did 
he  gain  the  victory?  What  French  general  was  victorious  in  Germany  ?  What 
countries  did  Austria  and  Germany  lose  ?  What  success  did  England  have  in 
the  contest  against  the  northern  powers  ?  §  106.  What  improvements  did 
Napoleon  make  ?  With  regard  to  public  instruction  ?  To  legislation  ?  To 
commerce  ? 


250 

present  day  eloquent  memorials  of  Napoleon's  restless  activity.  But 
he  pursued  also  his  ambitious  plans.  He  set  narrow  bounds  to  the 
liberty  of  the  press,  created  a  crafty  police,  occupied  the  senate 
with  his  followers,  subjected  the  State  Church  again  to  the  pope, 
and  caused  himself  to  be  appointed  consul  for  life.  Not  satisfied 
with  this  success,  he  contrived  to  have  himself  elected  emperor  of 
France  (1804  A.  D.)  He  re-established  nobility  and  a  pompous 
court.  In  the  Lombardy  also  he  caused  himself  to  be  appointed 
king  (1805  A.  D.),  and  designated  his  step-son,  Eugene,  viceroy. 
He  gave  a  regent  to  the  republic  of  Batavia  (Holland),  and  obliged 
Switzerland  to  furnish  troops  every  year  for  his  murderous  wars. 
Two  conspiracies  against  his  life  were  failures  (1800  and  1804  A.  D.) 
In  the  first  they  tried  to  kill  him  by  a  machine,  called  the  infernaL 
He  ordered  the  members  of  the  second  conspiracy  partly  to  be 
executed,  e.  g.,  Pichegru,  partly  to  be  banished,  like  Moreau.  Prince 
Enghien,  a  descendant  of  the  old  dynasty,  though  living  in  Germany, 
was  also  seized  and  shot,  because  he  was  accused  of  having  been  an 
accomplice  in  the  conspiracy. 

Hardly  a  year  had  elapsed  since  the  conclusion  of  peace,  when 
lingland,  allied  with  Austria,  Russia,  Sweden  and  Naples  re-com- 
menced war  against  France.  Napoleon  rapidly  penetrated  Ger- 
many with  a  well-armed  host,  commanded  by  the  excellent  Generals 
Bernadotte,  Davoust,  Soult,  Lannes,  Ney  and  Murat,  compelled  the 
sovereigns  of  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg  and  Baden  to  confederate  with 
him,  and  captured  an  Austrian  army  of  33,000  men  in  Ulm.  Vienna 
was  compelled  to  open  her  gates  to  him.  At  AusterHtz,  in  Moravia, 
he  fought  his  greatest  battle,  in  which  he  entirely  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians  and  Russians,  taking  18,000  prisoners  and  100  cannons. 
30,000  dead  soldiers  covered  the  battle-field.  Emperor  Francis  then 
concluded  the  peace  of  Presburg,  acknowledging  Napoleon  as  ruler 
of  Italy,  and  ceding  Tyrol  to  Bavaria. 

Naples  and  Holland  also  were  compelled  to  submit  to  Napoleon 
(1806  A.  D.)  and  accept  of  him  his  brothers  Joseph  and  Louis  as 
kings.  To  his  brother-in-law,  Murat,  he  gave  the  dukedom  Cleves- 
Berg.      Finally  he,  with  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  and 


How  did  he  show  his  ambition  ?  When  was  he  elected  emperor  ?  In  what 
country  was  he  appointed  king  ?  Mention  some  points  of  the  two  conspiracies. 
What  powers  participated  in  the  third  coalition  ?  Give  the  names  of  some  ex- 
cellent generals  of  Napoleon.  What  happened  in  Ulm  ?  What  was  the  result 
of  the  battle  at  Austerlitz  ?  Who  became  king  of  Naples  ?  Of  Holland  ?  W^ith 
what  sovereigns  did  Napoleon  form  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine  ? 


251 

Avith  some  other  princes,  formed  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine^ 
inducing  them  to  nominate  him  as  its  protector.  Francis  II.  then 
resigned  the  imperial  dignity  of  Germany. 

While  France  contended  successfully  by  land,  in  the  contest  by 
sea  it  lost  her  foreign  possessions,  and  Nelson,  at  the  Cape  of  Tra- 
falgar, in  Spain,  destroyed  the  large  French  and  Spanish  fleet ;  the 
Spanish  admiral  was  killed,  and  the  French  captured.  Still  the  hero 
of  the  battle  also  died  immediately  after  it  from  a  serious  wound  he 
had  received  during  the  combat  (1805  A.  D.) 

Next  year  Frederic  William  III.,  king  of  Prussia,  declared  war 
against  France.  England,  Russia  and  Saxony  were  his  allies.  The 
Prussians,  divided  into  two  armies,  were  routed  the  same  day  (14th 
of  October,  1806  A.  D.),  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt,  with  terrible  slaugh- 
ter. Their  generals  {e.  g.,  Bliicher)  and  their  fortresses  surrendered 
one  after  another,  and  Berlin  opened  her  gates  to  the  victor.  In  a 
few  weeks  Napoleon  conquered  the  largest  part  of  the  Prussian 
monarchy.  Prussian  Poland  joined  him.  He  summoned  its 
inhabitants  to  restore  their  liberty,  and  they  hastened  joyfully  to 
arms.  Then  he  attacked  the  Russians,  too.  In  the  sanguinary 
battle  at  Eilau  he  fought  with  dubious  success  (1807  A.  D.)  But  on 
the  14th  of  June  he  vanquished  both  enemies  at  Friedland.  They 
demanded  peace,  which  was  concluded  in  Tilsit.  Alexander, 
emperor  of  Russia,  lost  nothing,  but  Prussia  was  diminished  by  half. 
Napoleon,  from  a  part  of  the  conquered  countries,  formed  the  king- 
dom of  Westphaha,  bestowing  it  on  his  brother  Jerome,  and  left 
Prussian  Poland  to  his  new  ally,  the  king  of  Saxony.  In  order  to 
weaken  the  power  of  England,  he  estabHshed  the  continental  sys- 
tem, prohibiting  by  it  all  commerce  in  Europe  with  that  country, 
and  causing  the  English  merchandise  to  be  burned. 

g  107.    Spanish,   Austrian   and   Russian  War.     Burning 

of  Moscow. 

As  the  king  of  Portugal  did  not  renounce  his  alliance  with  Eng- 
land, Napoleon  invaded  his  land  and  conquered  it.     The  king  fled 

Who  destroyed  the  French  and  Spanish  fleet  ?  Where  ?  What  was  the  end 
of  the  hero  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  Prussian  war.  Where  were  the  Prussian 
armies  routed  ?  What  rapid  success  did  Napoleon  have  ?  What  country  joined 
him?  Where  did  he  fight  the  Russians  ?  With  what  success  ?  What  did  Prus- 
sia lose?  On  whom  did  Napoleon  bestow  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia?  On 
whom  Prussian  Poland?  Explain  the  signification  of  the  continental  system. 
I  107.     What  of  Portugal  ? 


252 

to  Brazil.  The  emperor  also  enticed  the  weak-minded  king  of  Spain 
to  come  to  France,  induced  him,  by  cunning  intrigues,  to  confer  the 
crown  upon  him  and  his  family,  and  then  appointed  his  brother 
Joseph  king  of  that  land.  Naples  was  left  to  Murat.  But  the 
Spanish  nation,  hating  the  new  government,  and  having  England's 
support,  opposed  it  so  obstinately  that  Joseph  was  obliged  to  with- 
draw from  Madrid.  Portugal  also  became  again  free.  Napoleon 
then  took  the  field  in  Spain  himself  with  immense  forces,  and,  with 
arms  in  hand,  brought  his  brodier  back.  He  abolished  the  inquisi- 
tional tribunal  and  the  feudal  law,  and  diminished  the  number  of  con- 
vents ;  but  the  people,  incited  by  the  clergymen  and  the  aristocrats, 
refused  to  accept  these  salutary  reforms  from  him.  Joseph,  irritated 
by  this  resistance,  abolished  all  orders  of  monks  and  mendicant 
friars.  As  the  Austrian  war  began  (1809  A.  D.),  and  Napoleon, 
therefore,  was  obliged  to  quit  the  country,  his  generals  were  again 
vanquished.  Wellesley  Wellington,  the  English  general,  defeated 
them  several  times  during  the  Russian  campaign,  and  Spain  was 
forever  released  from  the  foreign  dominion.  The  Cortes  (States- 
General)  gave  the  land  a  liberal  constitution  (1812  A.  D.) 

When  Emperor  Francis  saw  the  resistance  of  the  Spanish 
nation,  he  also  took  up  arms  once  more  against  Napoleon.  But 
the  latter,  aided  by  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  by  Russia,  Italy 
and  other  powers,  overwhelmed  the  Austrian  armies  in  a  few  days, 
being  especially  victorious  in  the  battle  at  Ratisbon,  and  entered 
Vienna  some  weeks  after  the  commencement  of  the  war.  Still,  he 
was  defeated  at  Aspern,  near  Vienna  (the  21st  of  May),  and  even 
in  the  batde  of  Wagram  (the  5th  and  6th  of  July),  in  which  he 
gained  the  victory,  he  had  more  dead  and  wounded  than  the  ene- 
mies. Emperor  Francis  hereafter  concluded  the  peace  of  Vienna, 
by  which  he  had  to  surrender  a  territory  containing  three  and  a  half 
millions  of  inhabitants.  After  this  Napoleon  caused  himself  to  be 
divorced  from  his  wife,  the  beloved  and  highly  respected  Empress 
Josephine,  and  married  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  (1810  A.  D.)  His  intention  was,  by  this  marriage,  to  per- 
manently establish  his  power,  but  it  was  soon  baffied  by  the  events 

Of  Spain  ?  How  did  Napoleon  get  possession  of  the  latter  country  ? 
Whom  did  he  appoint  king  ?  Who  opposed  Joseph  ?  Give  the  particulars  of 
the  .Spanish  war.  Who  gave  to  the  land  a  liberal  constitution  ?  Who  took  up 
arms  against  Napoleon  once  more  ?  Which  English  general  defeated  the  French 
army  ?  What  of  the  battles  of  Aspern  and  Wagram  ?  What  was  the  loss  of 
Francis?     What  of  the  empresses  Josephine  and  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria? 


253 

of  war.  He  also  incorporated  Holland  and  the  German  maritime 
countries  from  the  Ems  to  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  with  the  French 
empire.  At  last  he  seized  the  possessions  of  the  duke  of  Olden- 
burg, Alexander's  brother-in-law. 

As  he  hereby  drew  nearer  and  nearer  to  Russia,  Alexander  com- 
plained against  him  for  several  reasons,  <?.  g.,  for  having  spoiled  the 
land  of  his  brother-in-law,  and  armed  for  the  contest.  Napoleon  did 
the  same.  Each  one  collected  half  a  million  warriors.  Napoleon 
was  aided  by  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  by  Austria,  Prussia, 
•  Denmark,  Holland,  Italy,  Switzerland  and  Poland.  At  the  diet  of 
Warsaw  he  caused  the  restoration  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Poland  to 
be  proclaimed,  in  order  (as  he  said)  to  set  bounds  to  the  aggran- 
dizement of  the  Russian  power,  which  threatened  to  overwhelm 
Europe,  and  declared  the  begmning  of  the  second  war  of  Poland 
(i8i2  A.  D.)  The  Russian  armies  retired,  and  laying  the  country 
waste,  left  nothing  b'ehind  but  a  barren  desert.  Not  till  they  reached 
Borodino  (at  the  Moskwa)  did  they  keep  their  ground,  in  order  to 
defend  the  access  to  the  capital  of  the  realm;  but  they  were 
defeated,  the  loss  on  both  sides  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to 
90,000  in  killed  and  wounded.  Napoleon  entered  Moscow  (14th 
of  September).  He  was  surprised  to  find  the  city  empty  and  silent,, 
but  soon  columns  of  smoke  and  flames  ascended  from  all  sides.  A 
violent  hurricane  arose,  setting  the  whole  city  mto  a  blaze  of  fire 
and  reducing  it  to  rubbish  and  ruins.  Governor  Rostopshin  had 
ordered  the  combustion,  and  the  few  inhabitants  who  had  remained 
in  the  city  executed  it  with  the  aid  of  the  released  criminals. 
Napoleon,  beguUed  by  a  false  show  of  peace  made  by  Alexander, 
still  remained  in  Moscow  thirty-four  days.  Meanwhile  winter  set 
in  and  he  was  compelled  to  begin  his  retreat,  himself,  in  the  midst 
of  his  still  faithful  guards,  leading  the  advance,  and  the  heroic 
Ney  bringing  up  the  rear.  But  what  a  retreat !  Want  of  victuals,, 
the  enemies  hurrying  on  from  all  sides,  and  most  the  hard  frosts 
setting  in  earlier  than  usual  and  showing  27  degrees  Reaumur  below 
zero,  visibly  weakened  his  army.     The  sheltering  clothes  were  torn 

What  of  Holland  and  Oldenburg  ?  Who  complained  against  Napoleon  > 
How  many  sojdiers  did  he  and  Alexander  collect  ?  Who  were  the  allies  of 
Napoleon  ?  What  reason  did  he  give  for  the  war  ?  Give  an  account  of  his  cam- 
paign. In  what  manner  did  the  Russians  wage  war  ?  What  of  the  battle  at  the 
Moskwa?  Narrate  the  burning  of  Moscow.  What  stratagem  of  Alexander 
retarded  Napoleon's  retreat?  Give  an  account  of  the  retreat.  What  general 
brought  up  the  rear?     What  incidents  destroyed  the  army  ? 


254 

from  the  bodies  of  the  dying  men.  the  unfortunate  stragglers  desir- 
ing to  wann  themselves  at  the  watch-fires  were  pushed  back,  and 
the  corpses  of  fallen  horses  and  the  remainder  of  half-buraed  men 
disputed.  Men  and  beasts  fell  dead  in  troops.  The  road  was  cov- 
ered with  corpses.  In  Wilna  alone  50.000  were  found.  Around 
;Moskwa  and  Mohelew  250,000  were  burned  by  the  Russians.  The 
route  of  the  rear  guard  of  the  army  was  literally  choked  up  by  the 
icy  mounds  of  the  dead.  A  large  number  of  Cossacks,  hovering 
constandy  around  the  wearied  columns,  wore  away  their  numbers. 
Especially  great  was  Napoleon's  loss  in  the  days  of  crossing  the» 
Beresina :  the  banks  of  the  river  were  soon  covered  with  coq^ses. 
The  bridges  broke  down,  and  8,000  men  perished  in  the  waves. 
The  army  dissolved  in  wild  flight,  and  when  hunger,  cold,  and  the 
lances  of  the  Cossacks  had  destroyed  thousands  more,  its  feeble 
remnant,  20,000  men,  without  horses,  cannons  and  wagons,  arrived 
again  at  the  Niemen. 

1 108-  Fourth  Coalition  War.    Battle  at  Leipsic.    Restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons.     Congress  of  Vienna.     Ger- 
nnan    Confederation.      Battle  at  \A^aterloo. 
Napoleon    Banished    to    Elba,    and 
Captive  in  St.  Helena.    The 
Holy    Alliance. 

Napoleon  was  forsaken,  after  this  campaign,  by  most  of  his 
allies,  even  by  his  father-  and  brother-in-law  ;  the  last  decisive  con- 
test began  (18 13  A.  D.)  He  yet  defeated  his  enemies,  amounting 
to  a  million  of  combatants,  several  times,  principally  at  Liitzen, 
Bautzen  and  Dresden,  where  also  Moreau  fell,  fighting  in  the  Rus- 
sian army  against  his  country ;  but  he  lost  the  battles  at  Dennewitz, 
Gross-Beeren,  etc.,  and  was  finally  completely  vanquished  in  the 
great  battle  of  nations  at  Leipsic  (October  16-19).  The  Saxons 
left  him  here  in  the  midst  of  the  combat.  He  suffered  a  loss  of 
80.000  men.  He  then  hurried  back  to  France,  the  confederates 
following  and  invading  France  from  all  sides.  Even  now  he  still 
defeated  them  several  times,  most  successfully  at  Brienne ;  nay,  he 
compelled  them  to  retreat ;  but  while  he  moved  towards  the  Rhine 


WTiat  of  the  struggle  of  starving  and  dying  soldiers  ?  Of  >Jllna  ?  Of  the 
environs  of  the  Moskwa  and  Mohelew  ?  Of  the  route  of  the  rearguard  ?  Of 
the  Cossacks  ?  WTiere  was  Napoleon's  loss  especially  great  ?  How  many  men 
arrived  again  at  the  Xiemen  ?  \  108.  Who  then  left  Napoleon  ?  WTio  gained 
the  battles  at  Lutzen,  Bautzen,  Dresden,  Dennewitz,  Gross-Beeren  ?  In  what 
great  battle  was  Napoleon  completely  defeated?  WTiat  was  his  loss?  What 
success  had  he  in  France  ? 


255 

with  the  intention  of  drawing  them  also  there,  they  advanced  to 
Paris.  Mary  Louisa,  upon  whom  he  had  conferred  the  regency^ 
took  to  flight,  and  the  grandees  desponded ;  the  city  was  taken  by 
storm  (March  30,  18 14).  The  victors  now  pubHcly  declared  their 
resolution,  which  they  had  taken  long  ago,  to  restore  the  Bourbons. 
The  new  government,  at  whose  head  the  cmming  Tallejrrand  was 
placed,  deposed  Napoleon,  and  the  venal  senate  transferred  the 
cro^-n  to  the  Count  of  Provence,  who  forthwith  began  to  rule  under 
the  name  of  Louis  XVIIL,  giving  France  a  new  constitution.  Accord- 
ing to  it,  the  king  alone  ought  to  exercise  the  executive  power  and 
partake  in  the  legislative  with  the  chambers  of  the  peas  and  dde- 
gates.  'Liberty  of  conscience  and  of  the  press  was  also  expressed 
in  it.  Napoleon  received  the  island  of  EUba  and  a  pension,  the 
island  being  also  his  place  of  exile.  He  departed  there;  his  wife 
and  son  he  did  not  meet  again.  After  this,  general  peace  was 
brought  about  in  Paris,  according  to  which  France  was  limited  to 
her  boundaries  of  the  year  1 792,  and  a  general  congress  took  place 
in  Vienna. 

But  at  this  congress  the  interests  of  the  sovereigns  were  alone 
considered.  The  rights  and  desires  of  the  nations  wctc  not  remem 
bered,  though  they  had  done  the  greatest  share  for  the  deliver- 
ance of  Europe,  and  the  rulers  were  to  them  indebted  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  their  crowns.  Austria  took  the  Lombardy  and  Venice ; 
Prussia,  almost  half  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  together  with  several 
provinces  on  the  Rhine;  Russia,  the  greater  part  of  Poland,  with  the 
title  of  a  kingdom.  England  retained  several  important  conquests 
in  the  East  and  West  Indies :  the  loni^i  Islands,  as  a  republic,  were 
put  under  her  protection.  The  republic  o(  Belgium  was  united 
with  Holland.  Switzerland  was  recognized  as  a  neutral  confeder- 
ation. La.stly,  the  in&mous  slave-trade,  at  least,  was  abolished. 
The  pope  protested,  as  usual,  also  against  the  decrees  of  this  con- 
gress. The  German  Confederation  was  also  formed  there.  The 
German  sovereigns  concluded  it  for  the  purpose  of  conserving  the 
domestic  and  foreign  securit\-  of  their  lands.  In  future  no  more 
wars  should  be  waged  against  each  other ;  a  diet  should  conduct  the 

What  of  >Iary  Louisa?  Of  Paris  ?  What  did  the  victors  dedaxe?  Who 
was  at  the  head  of  the'new  govemment  ?  AMio  was  appcnnted  king?  Girc  the 
substance  of  the  new  constitution.  What  island  did  Napcdecm  receiTC  ?  How 
were  the  boundaries  of  Fiance  limited?  What  of  the  congress  in  Yienna? 
What  countries  did  Austria  take  ?  Prussia  ?  Russia  ?  England  ?  What  trade 
was  abolished?     What  was  the  teaor  of  the  German  confederation  ? 


256 

general  affairs ;  the  confederate  States  obtain  States- General;  and 
the  liberty  of  commerce  and  of  the  press  enlarged.  Frankfort, 
Liibeck,  Bremen  and  Hamburg  were  declared  free  cities. 

During  the  congress  Napoleon  quitted  Elba  and  landed  in 
France  (March  ist,  1815);  the  people  and  the  army  received  him 
with  exultation ;  he  took  possession  of  the  throne  without  blood- 
shed. He  declared  to  the  terrified  monarchs  that  in  future  he 
would  no  more  disturb  the  peace  of  Europe,  but  devote  himself 
only  to  the  welfare  of  France ;  but,  mistrusting  his  promises,  they 
proscribed  him,  and  sent  their  armies  against  him  for  a  final  contest. 
About  one  and  a  half  million  of  enemies  poured  into  France. 
Murat,  who  had  again  embraced  the  party  of  his  brother-in-law, 
was  first  vanquished,  and  later  captured  and  shot.  Napoleon, 
again  commandmg  220,000  veterans,  vanquished  the  Prussians  at 
Ligny,  but  was  defeated  at  Waterloo  (June  i8th).  He  in  vain 
hurled  column  after  column  upon  the  British  lines  led  by  Welling- 
ton; they  withstood  his  assaults,  and  even  his  renowned  guards. 
In  the  evening,  Bliicher  coming  up  with  the  Prussians,  completed 
the  rout  of  his  army.  Paris  was  captured  the  second  time ;  Napo- 
leon had  ruled  only  100  days.  He  resigned  the  crown  in  favor  of 
his  son.  Napoleon  II.,  and  was  willing  to  serve  as  a  general  among 
the  French  troops.  The  government  also  refused  this  demand,  and 
ordered  him  to  quit  Paris.  He  tried  in  vain  to  escape  to  America ; 
the  English  watched  all  seaports.  He  then  accepted  the  offer  of 
the  English  captain,  Maitland,  to  receive  him  on  board  of  his  man- 
of-war,  assuring  him  to  be  ordered  to  do  so  by  his  government,  and 
to  carry  him  to  England,  if  this  were  acceptable  to  him.  Napoleon 
declared  it  to  be  his  intention  to  give  himself  up  to  the  protection  of 
the  English  laws,  and  to  live  for  the  future  in  p;^n gland  as  a  private 
man.  But  the  high  sovereigns  considered  him  their  prisoner,  and 
caused  him  to  be  carried  to  St.  Helena  (August  7th).  Only  a  few 
faithful  friends  and  servants  accompanied  him  to  his  prison  of  rocks. 
He  lived  there  several  years  under  the  odious  guardianship  of  the 
English,  and   finally  died,  after    manifold   afflictions  of  body  and 

When  did  Napoleon  leave  Elba  ?  How  was  he  received  in  France  ?  What 
did  he  declare  to  the  monarchs  ?  Did  they  trust  him  ?  What  of  the  last  con- 
test ?  Where  did  he  vanquish  the  Prussians  ?  Where  was  he  at  last  defeated  ? 
By  whom  ?  W^hat  of  Paris  ?  To  whom  did  he  resign  the  crown  ?  Did  the 
government  comply  with  his  demand  ?  To  what  country  did  he  attempt  to  go  ? 
What  was  the  offer  of  Captain  Maitland  ?  What  did  Napoleon  declare  to  him  ? 
What  did  the  sovereigns  consider  him  ?  Where  was  he  carried  to  ?  Under 
whose  inspection  did  he  live  in  St.  Helena  ?     When  did  he  die  ? 


257 

mind  (1821  A.  D.)  His  remains,  in  later  times,  were  brought  back 
to  France  and  interred  in  the  most  solemn  manner.  France  was 
reduced  to  the  frontiers  it  had  before  the  revolution,  and  had  to  pay 
twenty-eight  milHon  pounds  sterling  for  the  expenses  of  the  last 
war,  and  to  maintain  a  hostile  army  for  five  years,  which  should 
remain  as  a  garrison  within  its  borders.  Marshal  Ney  was  executed 
for  high  treason,  in  favoring  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  though 
protection  had  been  guaranteed  him  by  the  capitulation  of  Paris. 
The  monarchs  of  Austria,  Prussia  and  Russia  then  formed  an  alli- 
ance, called  by  them  the  "  Holy  "  one,  by  which  they  bound  them- 
selves, "  in  conformity  with  the  principles  of  Holy  Scripture,"  to 
lend  each  other  every  aid  and  succor  in  case  of  repeated  commo- 
tions of  the  nations.  Most  of  the  continental  powers  soon  acceded 
to  this  treaty. 

B.    PAETIOULAE  HISTOEY  OF  SOME  STATES. 


§  109.     Switzerland.     Austria.     England. 

The  principles  of  the  French  revolution  also  excited  in  Switzer- 
land the  most  animated  sympathy.  The  discontentment  with  the 
aristocratic  governments  grew  general,  and  the  subjects  of  the 
cities  wanted  to  be  free.  The  province  of  Vaud  finally  called  for  the 
assistance  of  France.  A  French  army  made  its  appearance,  and 
took  Berne  after  short  resistance  (1798  A.  D.)  The  ancient  Swiss 
confederation  was  dissolved,  and  the  whole  country  formed  into  one 
republic,  in  which  all  inhabitants  should  have  equal  rights.  The 
forest  cantons,  after  a  short  and  bloody  struggle,  were  also  com- 
pelled to  accept  the  new  constitution.  When  (in  1803)  civil  war  was 
imminent.  Napoleon  divided  the  republic  again  into  several  cantons. 
Switzerland  was  obliged  to  furnish  him  an  auxiliary  corps  of  18,000 
men,  and  to  replenish  it  annually  by  new  troops.  By  the  efforts  of 
the  patriotic  councilor,  Esher  of  Ziirich,  the  Linth  canal  was  con- 
structed (1807-1819  A.  D.),  and,  in  the  following  period,  a  confed- 
erate military  school  founded. 

Since  the  death  of  Joseph  II.  the  nobiUty,  the  clergy  and  the 
civil  officers  in  Austria  domineered  again.     Francis  11.  committed 

What  of  his  remains  ?  To  what  frontiers  was  France  reduced  ?  To  what 
other  charges  had  she  to  submit  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  King  Murat  and  of 
General  Ney  ?  Give  the  essence  of  the  **  Holy  Alliance  "  of  the  great  powers. 
§  109.  How  were  the  aristocratic  governments  of  Switzerland  changed  ?  What 
classes  of  society  did  again  domineer  under  Francis  XL  ? 

(17) 


25S 

himself  to  the  direction  of  the  persons  surrounding  him.  He  abro- 
gated the  Hberty  of  the  press.  Prohibited  books,  even  in  Hbraries, 
were  confiscated  by  the  government  after  the  death  of  their  proprie- 
tors. The  secret  poHce  acquired  a  terrible  power.  It  had  its  spies 
among  the  most  reprobate  class  of  the  people,  and  even  amongst 
the  priests.  Commerce  was  hindered,  the  peasant  charged  with 
heavy  ground-rents,  and  the  number  of  taxes  continually  increased. 
This  mode  of  government  reduced  the  State  to  poverty,  and  caused 
a  heavy  amount  of  public  debts.  As  Napoleon  was  crowned 
emperor,  Francis  also  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria 
(1804  A.  D.)     • 

The  English  nation  also  desired  enlargement  of  hberty  and 
reform  of  the  old  aristocratic  constitution.  The  agitation  increased, 
and  in  several  fleets,  as  well  as  in  Ireland,  where  the  Catholics 
suffered  heavy  oppression,  revolts  took  place  (1797  and  1798  A.  D.), 
but  they  were  quelled  by  force,  and  the  Irish  parliament  united 
with  the  English.  The  national  debt,  during  the  French  wars, 
increased  many  hundred  million  pounds  sterling.  In  the  East 
Indies  State  after  State  was  assailed  and  subdued.  The  warlike 
Mahrattas,  in  fact,  vigorously  resisted ;  but  the  British  generals, 
especially  WelHngton,  also  destroyed  their  realm. 

1 110.    Poland.    Second  and  Third  Partition.     Kosciusko. 

While  Russia  and  Austria  were  at  war  with  the  Porte,  Poland's 
patriots  endeavored  to  deliver  their  country  from  the  Russian 
dominion.  Frederic  William  II.  secretly  promised  them  his  assist- 
ance. The  diet,  after  having  largely  increased  the  army,  demanded 
from  Catharine  II.  that  she  should  remove  the  Russian  troops  (1788 
A.  D.)  She  obeyed.  Hereafter  Poland  amended  its  constitution, 
according  more  freedom  to  the  cities  and  granting  religious  tolera- 
tion. The  miserable  enactment  that  every  individual  of  the  nobiHty 
could  annul  the  resolution  of  all  the  other  members  by  his 
veto,  was  also  annulled.  But  the  peasantry,  composing  the 
main  body  of  the  nation,  was  hardly  at  all  considered.  The  king 
of  Prussia  formed  an  alliance  with  the  State,  promising  his  support 

What  of  the  liberty  of  the  press  ?  Of  the  secret  police  ?  Of  commerce  ? 
Of  taxes  ?  Of  the  consequences  of  such  a  government  ?  What  was  the  condi- 
tion of  England  ?  What  of  her  public  debts  ?  Of  her  conquests  in  East  India  ? 
What  general  contributed  most  to  them?  §110.  Who  promised  assistance  to 
the  Polanders  ?  How  did  the  diet  amend  the  constitution  ?  What  class  of  the 
inhabitants  was  hardly  at  all  considered  ?  Did  the  king  of  Prussia  fulfill  his 
promise  ? 


259 

against  every  aggression  of  the  foreign  courts.  But  he  acted  merely 
from  selfishness,  demanding  several  fortresses  from  Poland,  and  when 
she  would  not  cede  them,  he  allied  himself  with  Russia.  Catharine 
ordered  100,000  Russians  to  march  into  Poland  under  the  pretext  of 
assisting  those  Polanders  who  protested  against  the  new  constitution 
(1792  A.  D.)  Prussia  supported  her,  and  King  Stanislaus  Augustus 
also  sided  with  the  traitors.  True,  the  patriots,  principally  Kosci- 
usko, fought  bravely ;  but  the  king  himself  crippled  their  force,  com- 
manding them  to  lay  down  their  arms ;  their  troops  w^ere  everywhere 
surrounded,  disarmed  and  disbanded.  The  enemies  plundered  the 
land;  the  inhabitants,  in  flocks,  were  driven  away.  The  victors 
then  promulgated  a  second  partition  of  the  kingdom,vpretending 
that  the  principles  of  the  Jacobins  had  gained  ground  in  that  country 
(1793  A.  D.)  The  cession  to  Russia,  after  a  short  resistance,  was 
agreed  to.  But  the  demands  of  Prussia  were  obstinately  rejected 
by  the  diet.  The  hall  of  the  assembly,  the  throne,  and  the  king  were 
then  surrounded  with  soldiers,  cannons  directed  against  the  hall, 
and  several  deputies  taken  prisoners  ;  but  when  the  votes  should  be 
taken,  all  kept  silence  during  the  whole  night.  The  Russian  general 
threatened  them  in  vain ;  at  last  when  the  day  was  breaking,  the 
mareschal  of  the  diet  called  three  times  the  name  of  every  deputy, 
and  still  no  answer  following,  declared  that  this  silence  meant  consent. 
In  this  manner,  with  the  concurrence  of  Austria,  Russia  received 
yet  three  milHons,  Prussia  more  than  one  milHon  of  inhabitants. 

One  year  after  this  the  patriots  again  endeavored  to  carry  out  the 
same  project  (1794  A.  D.)  Kosciusko,  who  was  elected  dictator, 
and  other  generals,  gained  some  glorious  victories.  At  the  same 
time  the  inhabitants  of  Warsaw  rose  against  the  Russian  garrison ; 
but  the  Prussian  king  drew  near  with  an  army  and  joined  the  Rus- 
sians. Kosciusko  was  defeated,  and  Warsaw  besieged ;  still  the 
Polanders  fought  so  bravely  that  the  king  had  to  withdraw.  After 
him  the  destroyer  Suwarrow  stormed  on ;  Kosciusko  was  again  de- 
feated, and  together  with  his  staff  officers,  taken  prisoner.  Suwarrow 
took  Praga,  the  suburb  of  Warsaw,  by  assault ;  8,000  fighting  Poland- 
Why  not  ?  With  whom  did  he  ally  ?  How  did  the  Polanders  fight  ?  Who 
commanded  them  to  lay  down  their  arms  ?  Under  what  pretext  was  their  land 
again  divided  ?  Whose  demands  were  rejected  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  scene 
which  took  place  during  the  night  in  the  hall  of  the  assembly.  How  many 
millions  of  inhabitants  more  did  Russia  and  Prussia  receive?  What  efibrts  were 
renewed  after  one  year  ?  Who  was  elected  dictator  ?  How  did  he  first  succeed  ? 
But  by  whom  was  he  then  defeated  ?  What  of  Suwarrow  and  Kosciusko  ?  Of 
Praga  ? 


260 

ers  were  cut  down,  the  children,  women  and  old  men  slain,  and  the 
fugitives,  in  troops,  flung  into  the  Vistula.  Upon  the  whole,  20,000 
Polanders  lost  their  Hves  on  this  day  (November  4th).  The  capital 
surrendered,  and  Austrian  troops  now  marched  into  the  land,  which 
was  divided  again  until  it  disappeared  entirely  from  the  list  of  the 
European  States.  Kosciusko,  later  liberated,  went  to  Switzerland, 
where  he  died  (18 17  A.  D.) 

§111.      United    States  of  North  America.     War  Against 

England.     Battle  at  New  Orleans.     Republic  of 

Hayti.    Toussaint    Louverture. 

Since  the  deliverance  of  the  United  States  of  North  America, 
the  immigration  to  them  became  so  considerable  that  the  number 
of  inhabitants,  during  sixty  years,  increased  from  three  million  to 
eighteen  miUion.  This  unexampled  rapid  growth  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States  was  owing  in  part  to  the  natural  fer- 
tility of  their  soil,  in  part  to  the  ease  of  settlement  and  of 
acquiring  land  in  them  and  in  part  to  their  free  constitutions. 
Millions  there  found  that  peace  and  liberty  which  was  denied  to 
them  in  Europe.  By  purchase,  the  inhabitants  acquired  Louisiana 
and  Florida.  They  bought  the  former  from  France,  Napoleon  being 
then  consul,  for  the  sum  of  fifteen  million  dollars  (1803  A.  D.) 
This  acquisition  included  the  vast  territory  from  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico north  to  the  British  possessions,  and  westward  from  the  Missis- 
sippi to  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Mexican  possessions.  Flor- 
ida was  purchased  from  Spain  for  five  miUion  dollars  (18 19  A.  D.) 
Agriculture,  commerce  and  manufactures  were  flourishing ;  sciences 
and  arts  also  rose  higher  and  higher ;  morality  was  more  generally 
diffused  than  in  any  other  country  on  earth.  At  the  head  of  the 
administration  were  excellent  men,  like  Washington,  Adams,  Jeffer- 
son, Madison  and  Monroe. 

During  the  wars  which  agitated  Europe  since  the  commence- 
ment of  the  French  revolution,  the  United  States,  for  twenty-three 
years,  enjoyed  perfect  peace,  which  was  only  once,  and  for  a 
short  time,  interrupted  by  a  war  waged  against  England  (18 12-18 14 

Of  the  vanquished  Polanders  ?  How  many  lost  their  lives  ?  What  was  the 
final  doom  of  the  land?  What  of  Kosciusko?  |  iii.  How  much  did  the 
number  of  inhabitants  in  the  United  States  increase  in  sixty  years  ?  For  what 
reasons  ?  What  two  countries  did  they  purchase  ?  From  whom  ?  What  was 
the  extent  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana  ?  What  of  agriculture  ?  Commerce  ? 
Sciences  and  morality  ?  Who  were  presidents  ?  What  were  the  causes  of  the 
war  against  England  ? 


261 

A.  D.)  The  conduct  of  England  in  harassing  the  commerce  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  impressment  of  seamen  from  American 
vessels,  were  the  causes  of  the  war.  The  British  claimed  that  their 
vessels  had  a  right  to  search  American  ships  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  from  them  any  seamen  of  English  birth.  The  American 
government  denied  this  right;  and  the  more  so,  as  several  times 
American  seamen  were  seized  and  forced  into  the  British  navy  under 
the  pretense  that  they  were  deserters. 

General  Hull  invaded  Canada,  but  soon  retreated  and  surren- 
dered to  the  British  General  Brock,  who,  in  another  attack  by  a 
small  body  of  regular  troops,  was  slain.  The  American  honor  was 
well  sustained  at  sea.  The  British  frigate  Guerriere  struck  to  the 
frigate  Constitution,  Captain  Hull,  and  the  frigate  Macedonian  was 
captured  by  the  frigate  United  States,  Commodore  Decatur.  In 
several  other  naval  actions  the  Americans  were  also  victorious. 

General  Winchester  was  defeated  at  Frenchtown,  and  by  the 
treachery  of  the  British  commander.  Colonel  Proctor,  522  Ameri- 
cans were  massacred  by  the  savages  after  their  surrender ;  but  York 
(now  Toronto)  surrendered  to  the  Americans  under  General  Dear- 
born. Fort  George  was  taken  by  the  Americans,  and  the  British 
squadron  on  Lake  Erie  captured  (1813  A.  D.)  by  Commodore 
Perry,  who  told  his  tnumph  in  a  brief  and  modest  dispatch,  saying  : 
"  We  have  met  the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours."  General  Harrison 
defeated  Proctor  and  the  famous  chief  Tecumseh  on  the  Thames. 
General  Brown,  aided  by  the  militia,  captured  Fort  Erie.  This  was 
the  first  of  a  brilliant  series  of  victories  obtained  by  the  American 
Generals  Porter,  Scott,  Ripley  and  Brown,  on  the  Niagara  frontier, 
over  the  troops  who  had  fought  under  Wellington  in  "Spain  (18 14 
A.  D.)  Sir  George  Prevost,  being  reinforced  by  Wellington's  veter- 
ans, at  the  head  of  14,000  troops,  invaded  the  American  territory  at 
Plattsburg,  where  were  stationed  about  4,000  American  troops 
under  General  Macomb.  The  British  flotilla  on  Lake  Champlain 
reached  Plattsburg  Bay  at  the  ^ame  time  and  attacked  the  Ameri- 
can squadron,  commanded  by  Commodore  Macdonough.    A  severe 

How  long  did  it  last  ?  What  right  did  the  English  claim  ?  What  of  General 
Hull  ?  To  what  frigate  did  the  British  frigate  Guerriere  strike  ?  By  what  ship 
was  the  Macedonian  taken  ?  What  of  General  Winchester  and  of  the  massacre 
of  Americans  by  the  savages  ?  Who  captured  the  British  squadron  on  Lake 
Erie?  Which  British  general  and  Indian  chief  were  defeated  by  General  Harri- 
son ?  What  other  American  generals  gained  victories  on  the  Niagara  frontier  ? 
Which  commodore  destroyed  a  British  flotilla  in  the  harbor  of  Plattsburg  ? 


262 

conflict  ensued  in  the  harbor  of  Plattsburg,  which  ended  in  the 
total  destruction  of  the  British  flotilla. 

The  British  General  Ross  landed  in  Chesapeake  Bay  with 
5,000  troops,  entered  Washington  (24th  of  August,  18 14),  burning 
the  capitol  and  other  pubHc  buildings,  and  loaded  with  spoil,  but 
also  with  disgrace,  retreated  to  the  shipping.  Next  he  sailed  to 
Baltimore,  was  killed  in  an  action,  and  the  army  having  tried  in 
vam  to  enter  the  city,  re-embarked.  The  victories  on  the  sea  in  the 
South  were  about  equally  divided  between  the  British  and  Ameri- 
cans. In  December,  18 14,  a  powerful  British  fleet,  carrying  over 
10,000  troops,  approached  New  Orleans.  In  the  city  was  General 
Jackson  with  about  6,000  men.  He  hastily  built  a  parapet  of  earth 
and  cotton-bales  a  few  miles  below  the  city,  and  planted  his  marks- 
men behind  it.  On  the  8th  of  January,  181 5,  the  British  army, 
under  Sir  Edward  Pakenham  (pakn-am)  advanced  to  storm  the 
entrenchments.  It  met  a  terrible  repulse.  Jackson  won  a  great 
victory,  killing  and  wounding  2,000  of  the  British,  with  a  loss  of 
eight  men  killed  and  thirteen  wounded.  Pakenham  was  killed,  and 
the  British  retreated  to  their  ships.  A  treaty  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  was  signed,  by  which  the  former  waived  the 
"  right  of  search."  During  this  war  the  Creek  and  Seminole  Indians 
commenced  hostilities  against  the  whites  in  Georgia  and  Alabama 
(1813  A.  D.)  General  Jackson,  meeting  them  in  a  number  of  bat- 
tles, speedily  brought  the  war  to  an  end. 

Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  England,  Commodore 
Decatur,  with  a  fleet,  was  sent  against  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  who  had 
committed  depredations  on  the  American  commerce.  He  captured 
two  of  the  Algerine  ships-of-war,  and  compelled  the  Dey  to  release 
all  American  prisoners,  and  to  relinquish  all  claim  to  tribute  in  the 
future. 

By  the  French  revolution  the  negroes  of  San  Domingo  (Hayti) 
were  also  incited  to  strive  for  independence.  The  island  pertamed 
in  part'  to  France  and  in  part  to  Spain.  The  whites  wanted  to 
become  free  from  the  mother  country,  but  the  negroes  ought  to  re- 

What  did  General  Ross  do  in  Washington  city  ?  Where  was  he  killed  ? 
Give  an  account  of  the  battle  at  New  Orleans.  How  many  British  and  Ameri- 
cans participated  in  the  battle  ?  Who  were  the  generals  ?  How  many  British  and 
Americans  were  killed ?  What  of  the  British  general?  What  right  did  Great 
Britain  waive  ?  How  did  Commodore  Decatur  chastise  the  Dey  of  Algiers  ? 
For  what  purpose  did  the  negroes  begin  the  contest  against  the  whites  in  .San 
Domingo  ? 


main  in  the  bondage  of  slavery.  Then  the  latter  began  the  contest 
against  their  tyrants  (1790  A.  D.)  At  first  the  whites  were  victors. 
Finally,  the  National  Convent  abohshed  slavery  (1794  A.  D.)  The 
colored  people  successfully  resisted  the  Spaniards,  English,  and  the 
domestic  enemies.  Their  leader  was  the  brave  Toussaint  Louver- 
ture.  The  Convent  confirmed  the  liberty  of  the  slaves,  and  the 
French  Directory  appointed  Toussaint  general-in- chief.  But  Napo- 
leon, resolved  to  subject  them  again,  sent  Leclerc,  with  a  formidable 
army,  against  them  (1802  A.  D.)  They  resisted  valiantly.  The 
French  General  then  concluded  to  overpower  Toussaint  by  strata- 
gem. The  latter  was  invited  to  a  banquet,  unawares  seized  and 
carried  to  France,  where  Napoleon  committed  him  to  the  jail,  and 
let  him  perish  therein.  The  colored  men,  enraged  by  the  treason, 
again  had  recourse  to  arms,  Dessalines  and  Christopher  being  their 
leaders.  In  a  few  months  20,000  enemies  lost  their  lives  by  their 
arms  and  the  yellow  fever.  New  reinforcements  from  France 
arrived;  new  cruel  deeds  were  committed.  The  black  captives 
were  piled  up  in  heaps  and  choked  by  vapors  of  sulphur.  The 
negroes  rose  in  a  general  insurrection,  vanquished  the  French  com- 
pletely, and  compelled  them  to  quit  the  island  (1804  A.  D.)  Des- 
salines became  governor.  Through  vengeance,  he  ordered  the  rest 
of  the  whites,  numbering  5,000,  to  be  killed,  and  then  took  the  title 
of  Emperor  of  Hayti.  The  negroes,  in  their  contest  for  liberty,  had 
lost  60,000  men.  Dessalines  was  killed  during  a  revolt  (i8o6  A. 
D.)  Then  two  chieftains  divided  the  possession  of  the  island.  As 
Louis  XVIII.  attempted  to  reconquer  it,  both  together  opposed 
him.  After  their  death  France  acknowledged  the  independence  of 
the  island  for  a  certain  compensation. 

EXKRCISES. 

Biographies  :  Napoleon — (a)  as  boy  and  youth,  (d)  as  general,  (c)  as  con- 
sul, (d)  as  emperor,  (e)  his  downfall  and  end.  Louis  XVI. — (a)  calls  the  States- 
General,  and  {^)  the  National  Assembly;  (c)  he  will  lock  the  hall  of  the  Assem- 
bly, and  (d)  forcibly  interfere  with  the  Assembly  (demolition  of  the  Bastile)  ;  (e) 

Who  then  abolished  slavery  ?  Who  was  the  leader  of  the  negroes  ?  Who 
resolved  to  subject  them  again  ?  By  what  stratagem  was  Toussaint  captured  ? 
How  was  he  treated  by  Napoleon  ?  How  did  the  negroes  take  revenge  ?  Who 
were  their  leaders  ?  In  what  cruel  manner  were  they  killed  when  captured  ? 
How  was  the  war  ended  ?  W'hat  cruel  deed  did  Dessalines  commit  when  he  be- 
came governor  ?  What  king  attempted  to  reconquer  Hayti  ?  Who  opposed  him  ? 
On  what  condition  did  France  acknowledge  the  independence  of  the  island  ? 


264 

he  must  go  to  Paris,  (/)  celebrates  the  federal  festival,  (g)  takes  to  flight  and  is 
reduced,  {/i)  takes  the  oath  upon  the  constitution,  finally  (/)  he  is  dethroned  and 
executed.  Kosciusko's  activity — (a)  in  the  American  war,  {/?)  in  the  two  Polish 
wars.  The  Russian  campaign — (a)  its  causes,  (3)  march  of  Napoleon,  {c) 
burning  of  Moscow,  (d)  retreat  and  destruction  of  the  great  army.  Contests 
for  liberty  in  Poland — First  contest:  I,  its  cause  ;  2,  its  success  ;  3,  second  par- 
tition of  the  land ;  4,  resistance  of  the  diet.  Second  contest:  i,  victories  of  the 
patriots  ;  2,  combats  and  capture  of  Praga  ;  3,  result  of  the  contest.  Which  are 
the  most  important  articles  of  the  constitution  made  by  the  National  Assembly 
of  France  ?  Which  are  the  principal  epochs  of  the  French  revolution  ?  When 
was  the  Bastile  taken,  and  the  bulk  of  the  feudal  services  abolished  ?  When  was 
the  National  Assembly  in  session  ?  When  the  National  Convent  ?  When  did 
the  Directory  govern  ?  W^hen  Napoleon  as  consul  ?  As  emperor  ?  When  was 
he  dethroned  ?  When  did  he  die  ?  How  long  was  France  a  republic  ?  How 
long  an  empire  ?  When  did  the  Austro- Prussian  war  begin  ?  W^hen  the  Russian  ? 
How  many  coalition  wars  were  waged  ?  Who  was  the  most  eager  enemy  of 
France  by  sea  ?  Who  on  the  continent  ?  When  and  where  were  great  battles 
fought  from  the  year  1796  to  1S15?  When  did  Napoleon  return  from  Elba? 
When  was  the  first,  and  when  the  second  treaty  of  Paris  concluded  ?  When  was 
Poland  the  second  and  third  time  divided  ?  Mention  remarkable  events  of  the 
years  1189,  1589,  1689  and  1789. 


TENTH  PERIOD. 


FrotT]  th[e  Second   Parisian  Treaty  to  tl^e    Present  Tinqe. 

Restoratioq.      Linnitatioq  of  the  Moqarchies.      Last 

Revolutions.     From  1815  to   1883  A.  D. 


riRST  OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL  HISTORY. 


1.  TIME  OF  EESTORATION-1815-1830  A.  D. 


^  112.     France.     GeriTiany. 

The  new  government  of  France  was  dependent  on  the  foreign 
powers  who  had  established  it,  on  the  emigrants  who,  after  the 
restoration,  had  returned,  and  on  their  partisans  among  the  nobility, 
the  clergy  and  the  people.  The  law  of  amnesty  was  precariously 
interpreted ;  proscriptions  and   executions   followed,   and  the  van- 

§  112.     Upon  whom  was  the  French  government  dependent?     How  was  the 
law  of  amnesty  interpreted  ? 


265 

quished  party,  though  forming  the  majority,  had  to  feel  the  ven- 
geance of  the  victors  (of  the  white  Jacobins).  These  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  most  important  civil  offices,  and  squandered  the  pub- 
lic property.  The  independence  of  the  tribunals  was  subverted, 
and  the  press  was  no  longer  permitted  to  publish  the  truth.  Relig- 
ious liberty  also  was  insulted.  In  the  western  and  southern  parts  of  the 
country  the  Protestants,  the  followers  of  Napoleon,  and  the  friends 
of  republican  principles  were  persecuted ;  the  enraged  populace 
assailed  and  murdered  them.  The  priests  fostered  the  spirit  of  perse- 
cution. They  regained  the  control  of  the  instruction  of  the  youth. 
Missionaries  passed  through  the  country  and  infatuated  the  blind 
multitude.  New,  dark  orders  sprung  up,  and  the  Jesuits  returned 
under  the  name  of  "  Fathers  of  Faith."  Liberal  members  were 
turned  out  of  the  chambers. 

Louis  XVIIL  was  followed  by  his  brother  Charles  X.  (count 
•of  Artois),  who  once  had  been  at  the  head  of  the  emigrants.  He 
motioned,  in  the  chamber,  a  plan  to  compensate  the  emigrants.  As 
the  latter  formed  the  majority,  the  plan  was  readily  accepted,  and 
the  nation  was  obliged  to  pay  them  i,ooo  million  francs.  As  the 
public  press  blamed  his  government,  he  re-established  the  censure. 
In  order  to  divert  the  attention  of  the  nation  from  the  public  affairs, 
war  was  declared  against  the  Dey  of  Algiers. 

The  German  government,  also,  did  little  or  nothing  for  the  prog- 
ress of  public  welfare.  Even  the  insignificant  amendments  promised 
in  the  federal  act  were  slowly  and  only  in  part  enacted.  The  promises 
especially  concerning  the  liberty  of  the  press,  of  navigation  and 
commerce,  and  of  representative  constitutions,  were  not  fulfilled. 
Therefore  the  German  people,  deceived  in  their  most  sacred  expec- 
tations by  the  supreme  federal  board,  were  directed  to  take  recourse 
to  their  particular  governments.  However,  several  fulfilled  their 
demands  by  granting  representative  constitutions,  e.  g.,  the  grand- 
dukes  of  Weimar,  Baden  and  Hesse,  and  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and 
Wiirtemberg.  In  Prussia,  only  States  Provincial  were  established ;  in 
Austria  nothing  at  all  was  changed. 

Who  obtained  the  important  offices  ?  How  was  justice  dealt?  What  of  liberty 
of  the  press  and  conscience  ?  Who  was  persecuted  ?  Who  fostered  the  spirit 
of  persecution  ?  Who  regained  the  control  of  public  instruction  ?  What  of  mis- 
sionaries and  Jesuits  ?  What  sum  did  the  nation  have  to  pay  to  the  emigrants  ? 
What  office  did  Charles  X.  re-establish  ?  What  was  the  condition  of  Germany  ? 
Especially  concerning  the  liberty  of  the  press  and  representative  constitutions  ? 
What  sovereigns  fulfilled  the  demands  of  the  people  ?     What  of  Austria  ? 


266 

This  bad  condition  was  growing  still  worse.  In  consequence  of 
new  congresses  of  Carlsbad  and  Vienna  (1819  and  1820  A.  D.)  the 
German  sovereigns  oppressed  the  liberty  of  the  press,  deprived  the 
universities  of  their  legal  judge,  and  appointed  a  central-commission 
in  order  to  examine  political  movements,  which  they  called  dema- 
gogical stratagems.  The  spirit  of  public  liberty  was  suppressed. 
Those  measures  were  rendered  still  more  severe  by  the  king  of  Prussia 
for  his  own  lands.  The  order  of  nobility,  which  had  been  abro- 
gated during  the  French  revolution,  was  re-established  in  the  Rhine 
provinces.  Emperor  Francis  recalled  the  Jesuits,  suppressed  some 
revolts  of  the  Hungarian  peasants,  and  dealt  cruelly  with  the  Car- 
bonaris  of  Italy  (see  §114). 

g  118.    Spain  and  Portugal. 

Ferdinand  VII.,  after  his  return  (1814  A.  D.),  abolished  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Cortes,  re-estabhshed  the  convents,  the  inquisition 
and  the  Jesuits,  and  governed  tyrannically.  At  last  the  indignation 
grew  so  general  that  Riego  again  dared  to  promulgate  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Cortes  (1820  A.  D.)  The  army  and  the  nation  con- 
sented. The  inquisition,  the  torture  and  the  convents  were  abolished, 
the  Jesuits  exiled,  and  liberty  of  the  press  declared.  The  king 
confirmed  the  constitution  by  oath.  But  it  was  soon  attacked 
by  its  domestic  and  foreign  enemies.  To  the  former  belonged  the 
nobility  and  the  clergy.  The  sovereigns  assembled  at  the  congress 
of  Verona,  viz.,  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia  and  the  kmg 
of  Prussia,  demanded  its  abolition,  and  charged  .the  king  of  France 
with  the  execution  of  their  order.  Accordingly,  a  French  army  of 
100,000  men,  under  the  command  of  the  Duke  d'Angouleme, 
entered  Spain  (1823  A.  D.);  the  majority  of  the  noblesse  and  clergy 
joined  it;  the  States- General  was  dissolved,  and  the  victorious 
adversaries  took  cruel  revenge  upon  the  patriots.  True, -the  king 
had  declared  general  amnesty ;  but  when  he  arrived  in  the  French 

What  did  the  German  sovereigns  do  in  consequence  of  the  congresses  of 
Carlsbad  and  Vienna?  Who  took  still  more  severe  measures  ?  WHiat  Order  did 
Francis  II.  recall?  How  did  he  deal  with  the  Carbonaris  in  Italy  ?  §  113.  How 
did  Ferdinand  VII.,  after  his  return,  govern  in  Spain?  What  was  the  conse- 
quence of  his  misrule  ?  What  was  abolished?  Who  was  exiled?  What  of  the 
liberty  of  the  press  ?  What  did  the  king  confirm  ?  Who  attacked  the  constitu- 
tion? Who  demanded  its  abolition  ?  What  army  executed  the  demand?  Who 
joined  the  army  ?     How  were  the  patriots  treated  ?     Was  amnesty  maintained  ? 


267 

camp  he  annulled  it.  Riego  was  taken  prisoner  and  executed. 
Only  Mina  defended  himself  bravely,  and  obtained  an  honorable 
retreat.  Ferdinand  proceeded  so  cruelly  that  even  the  French  gen- 
eral recommended  moderation  to  him.  In  several  provinces  the 
oppressed  people  rose  in  sedition.  Thousands  lost  their  lives 
in  the  combat;  thousands  upon  the  scaffold.  After  Ferdinand's 
death  (1833  ^-  ^0'  ^^^  daughter,  Isabella  II.,  an  infant  only  three 
years  old,  succeeded  him,  under  the  guardianship  of  her  mother, 
Christina.  But  as  the  clergy  declared  itself  for  Don  Carlos, 
brother  of  the  late  king,  civil  war  broke  out  between  the  Carlists 
and  Christinos.  P^spartero  waged  war  against  the  CarHsts  and  dis- 
armed' them ;  he  became  regent  of  the  realm.  But  as  he  removed 
Christina,  a  new  revolt  broke  out,  obhging  him  to  flee  (1843  A.  D.), 
and  procuring  the  government  again  to  Christina.  During  this 
time  her  daughter  became  of  age,  and  took  possession  of  the 
supreme  power ;  nevertheless,  peace  was  not  permanently  restored. 

The  adjoining  kingdom  of  Portugal  was  the  scene  of  similar 
commotions.  The  dissatisfied  nation  desired  some  liberal  changes 
in  the  laws  of  government.  At  length  a  revolution  broke  out, 
•and  a  free  constitution  was  soon  after  established  (1821  A.  D.) 
King  John  VI.  confirmed  it  three  times  by  oath;  the  queen  alone 
refused  the  oath,  thereby  causing,  with  her  son  Don  Miguel,  a 
counter  revolution.  When  the  king,  in  spite  of  his  threefold  oath, 
restored  the  absolute  monarchy,  Don  Miguel,  not  yet  satisfied, 
effected  a  new  insurrection  with  the  intention  of  depriving  his 
father  of  the  throne  and  his  life;  his  nefarious  scheme,  however, 
miscarried,  and  he  was  banished. 

After  John's  death  (1826  A.  D.),  his  son,  Don  Pedro,  emperor 
of  Brazil,  resigned  his  right  to  the  crown  of  Portugal  in  favor  of  his 
infant  daughter.  Donna  Maria,  granting  to  Portugal  at  the  same 
time  a  constitutional  charter,  and  appointing  his  brother,  Don 
Miguel,  regent.  Although  the  latter  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the 
charter,  he  soon  began  openly  to  aspire  to  the  throne,  and,  aided  by 

Who  was  executed  ?  What  of  Mina  ?  What  of  the  oppressed  people  > 
Who  succeeded  Ferdinand  ?  Who  declared  for  Don  Carlos  ?  What  was  the 
consequence?  Who  became  regent?  Whom  did  Espartero  remove  ?  What  was 
the  result?  What  of  Isabella?  What  of  Portugal?  What  did  the  nation  de- 
sire? Who  confirmed  the  constitution  ?  Who  did  not?  What  did  the  queen 
and  Don  Miguel  cause  ?  What  did  the  king  restore  ?  What  did  Don  Miguel 
attempt  ?  With  what  result?  In  whose  favor  did  Don  Pedro  resign  the  crown 
of  Portugal?     WTiat  did  he  grant  to  Portugal?     What  of  Don  Miguel? 


268 

the  artifices  of  the  priesthood,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  sov- 
ereign of  Portugal  (1828  A.  D.)  He  persecuted  his  opponents  with 
despotic  fury;  put  more  than  .25,000  men  into  prisons,  and  caused 
the  innocent  to  be  executed  every  day.  Don  Pedro  came  from 
Brazil  (1832  A.  D.),  enlisted  mariners  and  soldiers  in  France  and 
England,  and  fought  valorously  against  his  brother.  The  English 
admiral,  Napier,  vanquished  Miguel's  fleet  at  the  Cape  of  St.  Vincent 
(1833  A.  D.)  Lisbon  declared  herself  for  Pedro,  proclaiming  his 
daughter  queen.  He  again  entered  his  native  town,  visited  the 
tomb  of  his  father,  and  tearfully  wrote  these  words  on  it :  "  One 
son  has  killed  you;  the  other  will  revenge  you."  Don  Miguel  was 
expelled  from  the  country,  and  obliged  to  renounce  forever  his 
claim  to  the  throne.  Soon  after  Pedro  died  (1834  A.  D.),  and  his 
daughter  was  placed  upon  the  throne.  Numerous  conflicts  for  the 
constitution  have  taken  place  since  that  time. 

^  114.     Italy.     Insurrections  in  Naples  and  Piedmont. 

After  the  execution  of  Murat,  Ferdinand  IV.  (since  the  union 
of  Sicily  with  Naples  called  the  First)  returned  to  Naples,  and  the 
former  political  condition  of  the  State  was  soon  restored.  The  inner 
agitation,  however,  continued.  It  was  especially  increased  by  the 
Carbonaris  (as  they  were  called),  who  had  the  intention  of  uniting 
the  Italian  lands  into  one  State.  Encouraged  by  the  example  of 
the  Spanish  States-General,  they  effected  an  insurrection  (1820 
A,  D.)  and  proclaimed  the  Spanish  constitution  of  18 12.  The 
king  abdicated,  conferred  the  government  upon  his  son,  and  both 
confirmed  the  constitution  by  oath.  But  Emperor  Francis,  to 
whom  Ferdinand  had  already  secretly  promised  not  to  introduce 
any  innovations  which  he  disliked,  and  besides  the  monarchs  of 
Prussia  and  Russia,  invited  the  king  to  visit  him  at  the  congress  of 
Laybach,  and  he  went  there  under  the  pretext  of  saving  the  con- 
stitution he  had  already  confirmed.  But  when  he  saw  himself  safe 
here,  he  declared  that  the  high  rulers  had  resolved  to  restore  the 

Who  favored  his  scheme  ?  How  did  he  deal  with  his  opponents  ?  Who 
fought  against  him  ?  What  admiral  vanquished  his  fleet?  Who  was  proclaimed 
queen  in  Lisbon?  What  words  did  Don  Pedro  write  on  the  tomb  of  his 
father  ?  What  of  Don  Miguel  ?  |  1 14.  What  political  condition  of  Naples  was 
restored  with  Ferdinand  IV.  ?  By  what  society  was  the  agitation  increased  ? 
What  was  the  intention  of  the  Carbonaris  ?  What  did  they  effect  and  proclaim  ? 
What  of  the  king  and  his  son  ?  Who  invited  the  king  to  go  to  Laybach  ?  Why  ? 
Did  he  go  ?     Under  what  pretext  ?     What  did  he  then  declare  ? 


269 

former  condition  of  the  realm,  and  that  his  consent  to  the  consti- 
tution had  been  extorted;  he  also  retracted  his  abdication.  His 
declaration  was  followed  by  the  arrival  of  an  Austrian  army  (1821 
A.  D.),  which  soon  dispersed  the  native  troops  and  entered  Naples. 
The  day  of  doom  came ;  the  patriots  (and  chiefly  among  them  the 
Carbonaris)  were  the  sufferers.  Some  were  executed ;  some  were 
thrown  into  prison.  Six  tribunals  of  punishment  were  established ; 
the  free  press .  was  abolished,  and  all  the  recently  mtroduced 
reforms  were  declared  null  and  void.  The  ignorant  people  rejoiced 
at  the  overthrow  of  the  constitution.  The  king,  notwithstanding 
the  promised  amnesty,  continued  urging,  and  abused  his  recovered 
power  so  much  that  even  Emperor  Francis  advised  him  to  be  mod- 
erate. Priests  and  mercenary  soldiers  assisted  him  in  his  bloody 
work.  The  Austrian  troops  occupied  the  country  for  six  years. 
The  Order  of  Jesuits  was  also  re-established  (1833  A.  D.) 

In  Piedmont,  the  principal  province  of  the  Sardinian  monarchy, 
the  Jesuits  were  also  admitted  (since  18 15).  The  clergy  and  nobil- 
ity regained  their  former  privileges,  and  civil  liberty  and  enlighten- 
ment of  the  people  were  checked.  Then  the  troops  and  students 
began  an  insurrection,  in  which  even  Charles  Albert,  heir  apparent 
to  the  throne,  participated.  He  was  charged  with  the  regency 
when  the  king  abdicated.  He  granted  the  demanded  constitution 
of  the  Spanish  States- General.  But  those  three  monarchs  in  Lay- 
bach,  induced  by  the  representations  of  the  Austrian  minister,  Met- 
ternich,  resolved  to  overthrow  it.  Austrian  troops  marched  in, 
vanquished  the  patriots,  and  occupied  Turin  and  Alessandria.  An 
unlimited  monarchy,  in  its  severest  form  and  with  all  the  horrors  of 
reaction,  was  again  restored  in  Sardinia. 

g  lis.     Greece.     Contest     Against    the     Porte.     Ypsilanti. 

Bozzaris.      Fall     of    Missolonghi.      Naval    Battle 

at  Navarino.     Mehemed  All. 

The  Greeks,  tired  of  the  wearisome  religious  and  political  tyr- 
anny of  the  Porte,  resolved  to  obtain  their  liberty  by  fighting.     Th^ 

What  did  he  retract  f  What  followed  his  declaration  ?  What  did  the  patriots 
suffer?  What  of  the  free  press  and  of  the  new  reforms  ?  Who  rejoiced?  Who 
advised  the  king  to  be  moderate  ?  Who  assisted  him  ?  How  long  were  the 
Austrian  ti-oops  in  the  country  ?  What  order  was  re-established  ?  In  what 
other  country  also?  What  was  the  political  condition  of  Piedmont?  Who 
began  an  insurrection  ?  Who  was  charged  with  the  regency  ?  What  constitu- 
tion did  he  grant  ?  But  who  interfered  ?  Induced  by  whom  ?  Who  marched  into 
the  land  ?     What  was  restored  ?     ^115.     What  did  the  Greeks  resolve  to  obtain  ? 


270 

Hetaria,  a  secret  society  composed  of  friends  of  the  Greeks,  sought 
to  prepare  for  the  great  achievement.  The  most  respectable  Gre- 
cian inhabitants  in  Constantinople  were  initiated  into  the  plan  of 
deliverance.  Prince  Alexander  Ypsilanti  began  the  combat  in  Mol- 
davia. Sultan  Mahmud  II.  took  cruel  vengeance  on  the  Greeks  in 
Constantinople  and  the  neighboring  provinces.  He  caused  the 
noblest  families  to  be  killed,  and  the  patriarch,  together  with  several 
bishops,  to  be  hung  up  on  the  doors  of  the  temple. .  No  order,  no 
sex,  no  age  was  spared  by  his  fury.  The  active  forces  of  Ypsilanti 
did  not  suffice.  The  Greeks  were  defeated.  The  sacred  band  of 
the  Hetarists,  composed  mostly  of  young  students,  who  fought 
with  the  greatest  heroism  in  the  action  at  Dragashan,  was  almost 
annihilated.  Yipsilanti,  trusting  in  the  promises  of  the  Austrian 
government,  went  to  Transylvania,  from  where  he  intended  to 
return  secretly  to  Greece,  but  he  was  seized  and  carried  first  to 
Munkatsch,  and  then  to  Theresienstadt,  where  he  died  (1828  A.  D.) 

In  the  Morea  and  the  islands  the  Greeks  fought  with  better  suc- 
cess. They  took  Tripolizza,  the  capital  of  the  Morea,  and  their 
fleet  gained  a  victory,  principally  by  the  valor  of  the  Hydriots,  at 
Mitylene.  They  became  free  in  the  first  year  of  the  war  in  that 
peninsula,  in  Hellas,  and  in  a  part  of  Thessaly.  They  formed  a 
central  government  and  a  republican  constitution  (1822  A.  D.) 

Europe  beheld  the  heroic  people  with  admiration.  In  many 
countries  Philhellenic  societies  were  formed,  which  collected  money 
for  them  and  engaged  volunteers.  Youths  and  men  entered  the 
Greek  ranks  as  fellow-combatants.  From  England  and  the  United 
States  large  contributions  of  clothing  and  provisions  were  forwarded 
to  relieve  the  sufferings  inflicted  by  wanton  atrocities  of  the  Turks, 
and,  in  this  way,  the  nations  proved  that  they  had  more  Christian 
charity  than  the  sovereigns  who  had  formed  the  Holy  Alliance,  for 
the  latter,  following  Metternich's  advice,  left  the  Greeks  without 
any  assistance;  the  Grecian  embassadors  even  were  sent  away 
from  the  congress  in  Verona  without  having  obtained  a  hearing. 

In  what  manner  ?  What  of  the  Hetaria  ?  Who  was  initiated  into  the  plan 
of  delivery  ?  Who  began  the  combat  ?  How  did  the  sultan  deal  with  the 
Greeks  in  Constantinople  ?  How  did  Ypsilanti  succeed  ?  What  of  the  Hetar- 
ists ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Ypsilanti  ?  How  did  the  Greeks  fight  in  the 
Morea  and  the  islands  ?  What  city  did  they  take  ?  What  of  their  fleet  ?  Where 
did  they  become  free  ?  What  government  and  constitution  did  they  form  ? 
How  did  the  Philhellenic  societies  assist  the  Greeks  ?  Who  entered  into  their 
ranks  ?     What  of  England  and  the  United  States  ?     Of  the  Holy  Alliance  ? 


271 

In  the  island  of  Scio  the  Musselmans  raged  with  the  utmost 
cruelty.  They  burned  the  town  and  villages,  and  killed  all  inhabit- 
ants who  could  not  save  themselves  by  flight.  The  drunken  der- 
vishes fastened  thousands  of  skulls  upon  their  lances  and  danced 
around  them.  In  requital,  the  heroes  Kanaris  and  Pipinos,  rowing 
with  two  fire-ships  into  the  midst  of  the  fleet  of  the  enemy  and 
setting  fire  to  the  vessel  of  the  Turkish  admiral,  and  to  another 
vessel  of  the  line,  blew  up  the  former  with  more  than  2,000  men  on 
board.  The  other  sunk  in  the  billows  (1822  A.  D.)  Many  other 
Turkish  ships  were  destroyed  by  the  Grecian  fire-ships.  Misso- 
longhi,  the  rampart  of  the  Morea,  under  the  command  of 
Marco  Bozzaris,  defended  itself  with  heroic  courage,  and  for  a  time 
became  free  again.  When  Pasha  Mustapha,  with  a  large  army, 
invaded  the  western  part  of  Hellas,  Bozzaris,  devoted  to  liberty,  pre- 
pared himself,  like  Leonidas,  to  die  for  his  country.  At  midnight, 
with  222  Suhots,  he  broke  into  the  Turkish  camp.  Other  leaders, 
at  the  same  time,  attacked  the  enemy  from  other  sides ;  the  slaughter 
became  general,  when  a  ball  killed  the  hero.  The  Turks  left  their 
artillery  and  about  2,000  dead  on  the  battle-ground  (1823  A.  D.) 
At  this  time  the  illustrious  poet,  Lord  Byron,  arrived  in  Greece  and 
took  an  active  part  in  aid  of  the  independence  of  the  country, 
but  he  died  in  the  following  year  at  Missolonghi. 

In  the  rocky  island  of  Ipsara  the  horrors  of  Scio  were  repeated 
(1824  A.  D.)  3,000  inhabitants  had  retired  to  the  undermined  castle, 
otfering  to  surrender  to  the  Turks.  When  the  latter  rushed  in 
through  the  open  doors,  the  former  set  fire  to  the  mines,  and  4,000 
enemies,  together  with  the  fugitives,  were  buried  among  the  ruins  of 
the  castle.  Admiral  MiauHs  avenged  the  dead  by  reconquering  the 
island  and  vanquishing  the  combined  Turkish  and  Egyptian  fleets. 
A  series  of  other  victories  by  sea  followed,  and  the  campaign  termi- 
nated gloriously  for  the  Greeks. 

The  fierce  Ibrahim,  son  of  the  powerful  Mehemed  Ali,  viceroy 
of  Egypt,  now  also  brought  on  the  forces  of  Egypt.     The  fleets  of 

What  cruelties  did  the  Turks  commit  in  Scio  ?  Give  particulars.  What  did 
Kanaris  and  Pipinos  undertake  ?  With  what  kind  of  ships  ?  How  was  Misso- 
longhi defended  ?  Whose  devotion  caused  his  death  when  Pasha  Mustapha  in- 
vaded Hellas  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  attack.  What  was  the  loss  of  the 
Turks  ?  What  of  Lord  Byron  ?  How  many  Greeks  sacrificed  their  lives  in 
Ipsara  ?  In  what  way  ?  How  many  enemies  m^t  their  death  with  them  ? 
What  of  Admiral  Miaulis  ?     Who  brought  on  the  forces  of  Egypt  ? 


272 

the  Christian  powers  allowed  him  to  pass  by  unchecked,  and  land  in 
the  Morea.  On  his  march  he  laid  waste  the  peninsula  and  the 
main  land.  The  captives  were  subjected  to  the  most  horrible  tor- 
ments. They  were  killed,  or  for  a  still  worse  death,  thrown  into  the 
pestilential  mire  of  Turkish  jails,  and  the  women  and  children  car- 
ried to  the  slave-markets  of  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor.  Missolonghi 
was  again  besieged.  The  Greek  garrison,  composed  of  only  4,000 
men,  defended  itself  for  one  year  with  the  heroism,  of  the  ancient 
Greeks.  Numberless  assaults  were  successfully  repulsed,  and  every 
summons  to  surrender  the  fortress  was  refused  with  the  reply : 
"  Liberty  or  death  !  "  The  Turkish  mercenaries  had  to  be  driven  to 
the  attacks  with  whips.  At  last  Ibrahim  arrived.  The  Greeks  suc- 
ceeded twice  in  furnishing  provisions  to  the  garrison ;  then  the  im- 
port of  supplies  was  debarred ;  they  endured  the  extremities  of 
famine ;  the  plan  to  relieve  them  was  betrayed,  and  frustrated  by  the 
enemies;  finally  the  fortress  was  taken  by  storm  (April  22,  1826  A. 
D.)  Those  men  and  women  who  were  in  condition  to  fight  ex- 
pected nothing  biit  death,  and  received  it  by  the  swords  of  the 
enemies,  in  the  sea,  in  wells  and  in  flames.  The  weaker  women  and 
children,  old  men  and  wounded  assembled  in  the  arsenal ;  their 
leader,  Christus  Capsalis,  flung  a  torch  into  the  mines,  and  they, 
together  with  2,000  barbarians,  were  all  engulfed  in  one  grave^ 
The  whole  siege  cost  the  Turks  25,000  men.  Athens,  after  a  brave 
defense,  also  fell  a  prey  to  them.  Lord  Cochrane  commanded  the 
Greek  fleet ;  Church,  another  British  warrior,  the  land  forces.  Capo 
d'Istria,  formerly  Russian  minister,  became  the  president  of  the 
republic. 

Induced  by  the  influence  of  the  great  English  minister.  Can- 
ning, England,  France  and  Russia  finally  agreed  to  summon  the 
sultan  to  give  liberty  to  the  Greeks,  on  condition  of  an  annual 
tribute.     As  Mahmud  refused  the  summons,  those  powers  sent  their 

How  did  Ibrahim  deal  with  the  captives  ?  With  the  women  and  children  ? 
Give  the  narrative  of  the  siege  of  Missolonghi.  How  strong  was  the  garrison  ? 
How  long  a  time  did  it  defend  itself?  What  was  its  answer  when  it  was  sum- 
moned to  surrender?  Who  arrived  at  last?  What  was  the  garrison  at  last 
obliged  to  endure  ?  Why  were  they  not  relieved  ?  How  did  the  war-like  men 
die  ?  How  the  women,  children  and  old  men  ?  How  many  Turks  perished 
with  them  ?  What  was  the  loss  of  the  Turks  in  the  siege  ?  Who  commanded 
the  Greek  fleet ?  Who  the  land  forces?  Who  became  president?  Who  sum- 
moned the  sultan  to  grant  liberty  to  the  Greeks  ?  Induced  by  whom  ?  How 
did  they  force  him  to  do  it  ? 


273 

fleets,  and  Codrington,  the  English  admiral,  and  commander  of 
their  united  naval  forces,  burned  the  Turko-Egyptian  fleet  in  the 
harbor  of  Navarino  (Oct.  20,  1827).  A  French  army  expelled 
Ibrahim  from  the  Morea.  The  united  powers  resolved  that  Greece, 
in  future,  should  be  a  Christian  hereditary  monarchy.  When  the 
Porte  rejected  this  arrangement,  the  Russian  general,  Diebitsch, 
crossed  the  Balkan  Mountains  (1829  A.  D.),  took  Adrianople,  and 
approached  the  Turkish  capital.  The  Sultan  now  listened  to  the 
overtures  of  peace,  which  he  signed  at  Adrianople.  So  far  the  war 
had  failed  in  answering  the  hopes  of  the  Greeks,  who  loved  inde- 
pendence and  liberty.  The  allied  powers,  having  previously  deter- 
mined to  change  Greece  into  a  monarchy,  first  appointed  Prince 
Leopold,  of  Saxe-Coburg,  as  its  king;  but,  as  he  soon  resigned, 
they  placed  over  it  as  king  the  Bavarian  prince.  Otto,  a  youth  of 
seventeen  years  (1833  A.  D.)  Athens  became  the  capital  of  the 
new  monarchy. 

§  116.     America.     United   States.     Missouri  Compromise. 

Monroe  Doctrine.     Protective  Tariff.     Contests  of 

the  Spanish  Colonies  for  Independence. 

Bolivar.     Brazil. 

The  cessation  of  war  and  the  industry  of  the  people  soon 
brought  great  prosperity  to  the  United  States.  Commerce,  manu- 
factures and  agriculture  revived  and  flourished  wonderfully.  The 
question  of  admitting  Missouri  into  the  Union  as  a  slave  State  or  as 
a  free  State  was  finally  settled  (1821  A.  D.)  by  the  "  Missouri  Com- 
promise." This  compromise  prohibited  slavery  in  all  territory 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  north  of  36°  30'  north  latitude. 
President  Monroe,  in  a  message  to  congress  recommending  the 
recognition  of  the  South  American  republics,  which  had  been 
struggling  for  independence  against  Spain,  proclaimed  what  is 
known  as  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine,"  which  is,  that  the  American 
continents  "  are  not  considered  as  subject  for  future  colonization  by 
any  European  power."     A  protective  tariff  against  goods  imported 

Who  commanded  their  naval  forces  ?  Who  expelled  Ibrahim  from  the 
Morea?  What  did  the  united  powers  resolve  upon?  Did  the  Sultan  accept 
their  arrangement  ?  Narrate  how  General  Diebitsch  forced  him  to  accept  it. 
Was  the  hope  of  the  Greeks  fulfilled  ?  Who  became  their  king  ?  What  city 
became  their  capital  ?  |  116.  Were  the  United  States  prosperous  after  the  war  ? 
Explain  the  meaning  of  the  Missouri  compromise;  of  the  Monroe  doctrine. 
Who  was  the  author  of  the  protective  tariff? 

(18) 


274 

from  abroad  was  enacted  by  congress  (1828  A.  D.)  Henry  Clay 
was  the  author  of  this  policy. 

In  the  Spanish  colonies  of  America  the  State  and  Church  offices 
were  given  only  to  Spaniards,  who  enriched  themselves  by  this  pol- 
icy. Domestic  goods  were  not  allowed  to  be  sold  but  to  Spain, 
and  only  Spanish  goods  were  to  be  imported.  When  the  States- 
General  established  a  liberal  constitution  in  the  native  country 
(18 1 2  A.  D.),  the  colonies  demanded  the  same  rights.  This  just 
demand  being  refused,  most  of  them  threw  off  the  king's  dominion 
and  constituted  their  own  governments.  As  Ferdinand  VII.  then 
demanded  unconditional  submission,  they  took  up  arms  in  order  to 
become  entirely  independent,  and  fought  to  the  utmost.  The 
cruelty  of  the  king  only  inflamed  their  courage  the  more.  They 
became  republics.  Civil  concord,  however,  was  lacking  in  most  of 
them. 

The  vice-kingdom  Rio  de  la  Plata  first  began  the  combat  for 
liberty ;  it  gained  its  independence,  fighting  principally  under  the 
command  of  the  brave  General  San  Martin.  By  degrees  several 
repubUcs  arose  from  the  kingdom,  which  later  (181 7  A.  D.)  entered 
into  a  confederation,  and  gave  themselves  a  constitution  modeled 
after  that  of  the  United  States.  Slavery  was  abolished. — Uruguay 
and  Paraguay  later  separated  from  the  union.  In  Paraguay  the 
lawyer  Dr.  Francia,  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits,  ruled  for  a  long  time  with 
a  dictator's  power. 

Venezuela  declared  its  independence  almost  simultaneously  with 
that  of  the  La  Plata  States  (181 1  A.  D.)  As  an  awful  earthquake 
then  visited  and  almost  entirely  demolished  the  capital,  Caracas,  by 
which  70,000  persons  were  killed  in  Valencia,  the  clergy  declared 
this  natural  phenomenon  to  be  a  divine  punishment  for  having 
separated  from  Spain,  and  summoned  the  inhabitants  to  return  to  its 
dominion.  This,  in  fact,  was  done,  and  the  repubhcans  were  severe- 
ly persecuted.  But  BoHvar  led  600  men  over  the  Andes  (18 13  A. 
D.);  thousands  joined  him  to  revenge  the  death  of  the  patriots;  he 

What  privileges  did  the  Spaniards  enjoy  in  the  Spanish  colonies  ?  What  of 
domestic  and  Spanish  goods  ?  What  did  the  colonies  demand  ini8i2?  What 
was  the  effect  of  Ferdinand's  order  of  unconditional  submission?  What  did  the 
colonies  become?  Who  began  the  combat  for  independence?  Under  what 
commander  did  La  Plata  gain  its  independence  ?  What  of  its  several  republics  ? 
What  of  Uruguay  and  Paraguay  ?  Of  Dr.  Francia  ? — Of  Venezuela  ?  Of  Car- 
acas and  Valencia  ?  What  did  the  clergy  declare  ?  To  whose  dominion  did  the 
inhabitants  return  ? 


275 

vanquished  the  Spaniards,  entered  Caracas,  his  native  town,  in 
solemn  triumph,  and  was  saluted  by  the  people  as  the  deliverer  of 
the  country.  War  continued  with  variable  success;  Morillo,  Ferdi- 
nand's general,  misruled  the  country  and  was  as  cruel  as  another 
Alva;  Bolivar  was  obliged  to  flee  to  San  Domingo;  the  absolute 
monarchy  seemed  to  get  the  victory.  But  the  hero  soon  returned 
and  fought  again  with  good  success.  New  Granada  united  with 
Venezuela  (1819  A.  D.),  and  both  republics,  in  honor  of  the  dis- 
coverer of  America,  assumed  the  name  of  Columbia.  BoHvar  be- 
came their  president  (1821  A.  D.),  and  at  last  expelled  the  Spaniards 
entirely  (1823  A.  D.) 

San  Martin  also  aided  the  inhabitants  of  ChiU  (18 17  A.  D.),  and 
defeated  the  Spanish  troops.  He  was  nominated  protector  of  the 
new  republic.  From  Chili  he  advanced  victoriously  to  Peru  and 
captured  Lima  (1821  A.  D.),  while  the  English  hero,  Cochrane, 
with  his  ships,  protected  the  coast  of  this  country.  As  the  royalists 
regained  supreme  power,  Bolivar,  hastening  to  succor  the  republi- 
cans, defeated  the  Spaniards.  His  lieutenant-general,  Sucre,  at  Aya- 
cucho,  gamed  the  decisive  victory ;  warriors  of  Napoleon,  Germans 
and  English  were  fighting  as  volunteers  with  him  ;  the  royal  army 
was  annihilated ;  two  viceroys  and  six  generals  surrendered.  BoH- 
var seized  also  the  rest  of  upper  Peru  from  the  Spaniards  (1825  A. 
D,);  the  land  changed  into  a  special  republic,  and  called  itself 
BoHvia,  in  honor  of  its  deliverer.  Bolivar  framed  new  constitutions 
in  both  States,  and  became  their  president  for  life.  So  much  power 
centered  in  one  man,  excited  against  him  jealousy  and  fear ;  several 
conspiracies  were  planned  to  take  his  life ;  in  addition,  the  republics 
themselves  disagreeing,  he  resigned  his  exalted  position,  and  soon 
after  died  (1830  A.  D.) 

Mexico  also  declared  itself  independent  (1813  A.  D.),  and  framed 
its  first  constitution.  Mina,  the  valorous  champion  of  liberty  in  the 
mother  country,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  new  government. 

Who  delivered  them  ?  Give  a  narrative  of  Bolivar's  activity.  What  of 
Morillo?  Of  Bolivar's  flight?  What  other  provinces  united  with  Venezuela ? 
What  name  did  the  two  republics  assume  ?  Who  became  their  president  ? 
What  inhabitants  did  San  Martin  also  aid?  What  was  he  nominated?  To  what 
city  did  he  advance  from  Chili  ?  Who  protected  the  coast  of  Peru  ?  Who  suc- 
ceeded the  republicans?  Who,  at  Ayacucho,  gained  the  decisive  victory?  Who 
was  fighting  with  Sucre  ?  What  result  did  the  victory  have  ?  What  name  did 
Peru  assume  in  honor  of  Bolivar  ?  What  did  he  frame,  and  what  become  ? 
What  was  planned  against  him  ?  What  position  did  he  resign  ?  What  of  Mexico  ? 
Who  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  new  government  ? 


276 

but  was  taken  prisoner  and  shot.  Iturbide,  who,  it  was  thought, 
would  combat  the  repubHcans,  joined  them  (1820  A.  D.),  effected 
the  downfall  of  the  Spanish  dominion,  and  was,  by  the  influence  of 
the  troops,  nommated  emperor  (1822  A.  D.)  But  Santa  Anna  pro- 
claimed the  republic ;  the  former  was  banished,  and  when  he  re- 
turned, was  seized  and  shot  (1824  A.  D.)  The  land  gave  itself 
another  constitution,  resembling  that  of  the  United  States.  Slavery, 
too,  was  abolished  (1829  A.  D.)  After  the  death  of  Iturbide,  several 
presidents  rapidly  succeeded  each  other  (1824-1833  A.  D.),  until 
Santa  Anna  was  elected  president  (1833  A.  D.) — Guatemala  also 
became  a  republic  (1821  A.  D.) 

As  John  VI.,  king  of  Portugal,  returned  to  this  land,  Brazil  de- 
manded to  be  separated  from  the  mother  country ;  he  was  compelled 
to  acknowledge  it  as  an  independent  realm,  and  permit  his  son  Don 
Pedro  I.  to  be  its  emperor  (1825  A.  D.)  In  later  time  Pedro  fell 
out  with  the  national  party;  an  insurrection  broke  out  (1831  A.  D.), 
the  troops  refused  to  obey  him ;  then  he  gave  up  his  claim  to  the 
throne  in  favor  of  his  son  Pedro  II.  and  went  to  Portugal. 

2.   THE   REVOLUTION   OF  1830  IN  FRANCE,  AND  ITS  OONSEQUENOES - 
1830  to  1848  A.  D. 


g  117.     France.     Revolution  of  July.     Dethronement  of 
Charles  X.     The  Family  of  Orleans. 

Charles  X.  continued  to  govern  in  an  arbitrary  way.  He  again 
dissolved  a  Chamber  of  the  Deputies,  thinking  it  to  be  too  liberal 
(1830  A.  D.)  In  order  to  manage  the  new  elections  according  to 
his  pleasure,  promises,  threats  and  violence  were  tried ;  the  bishops 
issued  pastoral  letters ;  the  king,  a  summons  to  the  people.  The  new 
delegates,  nevertheless,  were  yet  more  liberal  men.  Now  the  king 
published  the  six  ill-famed  ordinances  by  which  he  suspended  the 
liberty  of  the  press,  dissolved  the  newly-elected  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, and  changed  the  law  of  elections  from  bad  to  worse  (July  26). 
The  constitution  was  destroyed ;  yet,  in  the  evening  of  the  day  upon 

What  was  his  success  ?  What  of  Iturbide  ?  What  did  Santa  Anna  proclaim  ? 
What  was  the  end  of  Iturbide  ?  What  constitution  did  Mexico  adopt  ?  What 
was  also  abolished  ?  Who  was  at  last  elected  president  ?  What  did  Brazil  de- 
mand when  John  VI.  returned  to  Portugal  .-*  W^ho  became  emperor  ?  To  whom 
was  Don  Pedro  I.,  when  an  insurrection  broke  out,  obliged  to  resign  the  throne  ? 
§  117.  Give  an  account  of  the  arbitrary  government  of  Charles  X.  What  did 
he  dissolve.?  What  means  did  he  and  the  bishops  employ?  Did  they  succeed? 
What  ordinances  did  he  publish  ? 


277 

which  the  ordinances  were  pubUshed,  the  revolt  began  in  Paris. 
First  the  editors  of  the  Hberal  papers  and  the  newly-elected  deputies 
declared  their  opposition  to  them.  On  the  morning  of  July  27th  all 
the  usual  business  was  suspended,  and  the  indignant  people  thronged 
the  streets.  The  government  caused  the  printing-offices  to  be 
broken  open  and  the  presses  to  be  seized,  and  ordered  the  arrest 
(by  the  sheriffs)  of  fifty  of  the  most  prominent  citizens,  besides 
directing  that  the  "  rabble  "  (as  the  people  were  designated)  should 
be  dispersed  by  the  soldiers  and  cannons.  The  police,  the  royal 
guards,  the  Swiss  regiments,  and  the  troops  of  the  line  were  marched ; 
most  of  the  latter,  however,  refused  to  fight  their  fellow-citizens. 
First  the  guards  made  an  attack ;  several  defenseless  old  men  and 
women  were  killed,  and  hereby  the  signal  of  the  combat  was  given. 
It  commenced  in  every  street,  and  lasted  the  whole  day.  The 
prime  minister,  Polignac,  himself  ordered  it  to  be  continued,  and 
hinting  something  about  St.  Bartholomew,  said:  "Go  on  in  this 
way  !  Bleeding  in  July  is  as  wholesome  as  in  August !  "  Mean- 
time, the  careless  king,  as  usual,  played  whist  at  St.  Cloud. 

In  the  night  the  citizens  prepared  for  the  next  day.  The 
national  guards,  which  the  king  had  previously  disbanded,  volun- 
tarily reorganized  themselves,  arms  were  looked  for,  and  barricades 
built,  that  is,  the  streets  were  blocked  up  with  upset  wagons,  planks, 
and  paving-stones.  The  king  declared  Paris  in  a  state  of  siege, 
committed  to  the  Mareschal  Marmont  the  chief  command  of  the 
troops,  and  ordered  more  regiments  to  march  to  Paris.  On  the 
28th  all  the  important  posts  of  the  city  were  occupied  by  armed 
citizens,  and  the  national  guards  moved  on.  Youths  also  placed 
themselves  in  the  ranks  of  the  combatants.  The  pupils  of  the 
polytechnic  school  were  the  leaders  of  the  bands ;  the  students  of 
medicine  attended  to  the  wounded.  Women,  maidens  and  children 
encouraged  the  fighters,  procured  ammunition,  provisions  and  re- 
freshments, fired  from  windows,  and  showered  stones,  beams,  some- 


what effect  did  the  publication  of  the  ordinances  cause  in  Paris  ?  What  did 
the  liberal  papers  and  the  new  deputies  declare  ?  What  of  business  and  of  the 
people  ?  What  did  the  government  order  ?  What  forces  were  marched  ?  Who 
refused  to  fight  ?  Whom  did  the  guards  first  attack  ?  What  did  then  commence  ? 
Who  ordered  the  combat  ?  What  did  Polignac  say  ?  What  was  meanwhile  the 
pastime  of  the  king  ?  How  did  the  citizens  prepare  for  the  next  day  ?  How  did 
they  build  barricades  ?  In  what  state  did  the  king  declare  Paris  to  be  ?  To 
whom  did  he  commit  the  chief  command  ?  By  whom  were  the  important  posts 
of  the  city  occupied  ?  How  were  the  students  of  the  polytechnic  school  and  of 
medicine  employed  ?     How  the  women,  maidens  and  children  ? 


278 

times  even  whole  chimneys  upon  the  enemy.  A  young  girl,  in  the 
midst  of  the  tumult,  hoisted  the  tri-colored  flag.  Arms  and  alarm- 
bells  resounded  everywhere ;  the  whole  city  was  one  vast  camp. 
Marmont  ordered  all  divisions  of  the  troops  to  attack  at  all  points 
simultaneously.  They  fired  with  cannons  and  grape-shot  at  the 
citizens ;  thousands  of  them  fell,  but  nevertheless  they  resisted 
bravely,  crying :  "  DoAvn  with  the  servants  of  the  tyrant !  Long 
live  liberty !  "  The  royalists  were  everywhere  defeated,  the  barracks 
of  the  Swiss  mercenaries,  and  the  palace  of  the  archbishop  were 
taken  by  storm  ;  three  regiments  of  the  troops  of  the  line  joined  the 
people.  The  fight  was  especially  murderous  before  the  bridge  of  the 
Greve-place,  where  a  youth  cried  :  "  Give  the  bridge  my  name  if  I 
die  ! '  My  name  is  Arcole!  "  He  was  the  first  who  hurried  towards 
it,  and  fell  pierced  by  balls.  Thousands  followed  him,  and  the 
bridge  was  taken  by  assault.  It  received  the  name  of  the  fallen 
hero.  A  pupil  of  the  polytechnic  school,  amidst  a  shower  of  gun- 
shot, grasped  a  hostile  cannon  in  his  arms,  crying :  "  I  will  rather 
die  than  quit  its  hold  !  "  By  evening  only  a  small  part  of  the  city 
was  still  possessed  by  the  royalists.  Meanwhile,  Charles  was  again 
playing  at  cards,  and  a  great  chase  was  arranged  for  the  next  day. 
Lafitte,  a  member  of  the  Liberal  party,  still  declared  to  the  Min- 
ister of  State  that  peace  could  be  restored,  if  the  ordinances 
would  be  withdrawn  and  the  ministers  dismissed ;  but  his  declara- 
tion was  not  heeded.  On  the  29th  the  drums  beat  the  general  in  all 
quarters  of  the  city,  and  the  alarm-bells  resounded  ;  the  assembly  of 
deputies  appointed  Lafayette  commander-in-chief  of  the  armed 
people,  and  organized  a  temporary  government.  The  royal  troops 
were  expelled  from  their  last  positions;  the  Louvre  and  Palais 
Royal  conquered,  in  spite  of  the  resistance  of  the  Swiss  guards,  and 
finally  the  Tuileries,  too,  taken  by  storm.  This  completed  the  vic- 
tory. The  people  were  exultant.  A  young  girl  who,  amidst  a  shower 
of  bullets,  had  captured  a  cannon,  was  carried  about  in  a  triumphal 
car  with  shouts  and  songs  of  victory.     The    dead  were   solemnly 

What  did  a  girl  hoist  ?  What  was  the  aspect  of  the  city  ?  What  did  Mar- 
mont order  ?  How  did  the  citizens  behave  ?  What  did  they  cry  ?  What  was 
their  success  ?  What  of  the  mercenaries  ?  Of  the  palace  of  the  archbishop  ? 
Who  joined  the  people  ?  Before  what  bridge  was  the  fight  murderous  ?  What 
of  Arcole  ?  Who  clasped  a  cannon  in  his  arms  ?  What  was  the  situation  of  the 
city  by  evening  ?  What  of  Charles  ?  What  did  Lafitte  declare  ?  With  what 
result?  Who  was  the  next  day  appointed  general- in-chief?  What  was  organ- 
ized ?     What  palaces  were  also  taken  ?     How  was  a  young  girl  honored  ? 


279 

buried,  and  a  plain  cross,  with  the  inscription,  '*  To  the  memory  of 
the  French  who  died  for  Hberty,"  was  put  on  their  graves. 

The  provisional  government  declared  the  power  of  Charles  X. 
forfeited,  and  appointed  Louis  Philippe,  duke  of  Orleans,  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  kingdom.  The  assembly  of  deputies  improved  the 
constitution,  stating  that  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  was  to  be  the 
foundation  of  the  government,  and  adjudging  to  the  nation  the 
right  to  change  all'  estabhshed  constitutions ;  then  they  proclaimed 
Louis  Philippe  king.  Charles,with  his  family,  was  obliged  to  quit  the 
country,  and  Polignac,  with  three  other  ministers,  was  sentenced  to 
imprisonment  for  life ;  however,  after  six  years'  confinement  he  was 
released. 

The  newly-elected  king  did  not  fulfill  the  expectations  of  the 
patriots;  he,  by  degrees,  joined  the  odious  party  of  retrocession. 
The  worthiest  men,  like  Lafayette  and  Lafitte,  withdrew  from  public 
offices.  Bloody  insurrections  broke  out  in  la  Vendee,  and  other 
parts  of  the  country.  PhiHppe's  life  was  several  times  attacked,  most 
dangerously  by  Fieschi,  who  discharged  an  infernal  machine  at 
him.  Louis  Napoleon,  nephew  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  excited 
two  insurrections  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  the  government ; 
he  was  captured  and  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  In  or- 
der to  more  easily  control  the  inhabitants  of  Paris,  Philippe  caused  the 
city  to  be  fortified,  which  enterprise  cost  the  country  enormous  sums 
of  money. — During  his  reign,  Algiers  was  conquered  and  colonized. 
Abd-el-Cader,  chieftain  of  the  Bedouins,  who  allied  with  the  em- 
peror of  Morocco  (1844  A.  D.),  offered,  in  this  country,  a  most  per- 
tinacious resistance.  Bugeaud  aud  other  French  generals  combated 
him;  at  last,  Lamoriciere  took  him  prisoner  (1847  A.  D.) 

^  118.    Belgium.    Separation  from  Holland.     Germany. 

The  Belgians,  who  had  been  compelled  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna  to  unite  with  the  Hollanders,  having  long  been  goaded'  by 
unjust  laws,  and  treated  rather  as  vassals  than  as  subjects  of  the 

How  the  killed  citizens  ?  What  was  the  inscription  on  their  graves  ?  Whose 
power  was  declared  forfeited  ?  Who  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  ?  In  what 
manner  did  the  deputies  improve  the  constitution  ?  What  ought  to  be  the  foun- 
dation of  the  government  ?  What  right  was  adjudged  to  the  nation  ?  Who  was 
proclaimed  king  ?  What  of  Charles,  of  Polignac,  and  other  ministers  ?  What 
party  did  Louis  Philippe  join  ?  What  was  the  consequence  of  it  ?  What  of  his 
life  ?  Of  Louis  Napoleon  ?  Why  did  the  king  fortify  Paris  ?  What  country  was 
conquered  and  colonized  ?     What  general  took  Abd-el-Cader  prisoner  ? 


280 

Dutch  king,  judging  the  period  favorable  for  dissolving  their  union 
with  a  people  foreign  to  them  in  language,  manners  and  interests, 
arose  in  insurrection  (August,  1830  A.  D.),  and  after  a  contest  of 
four  days'  duration,  drove  the  Dutch  authorities  and  garrison  from 
their  capital,  Briissel.  In  vain  w-ere  efforts  made  by  the  prince  of 
Orange  to  reconcile  the  conflicting  demands  of  the  Dutch  and  Bel- 
gians, and  again  unite  the  two  people  under  one  government. 
The  proposals  of  the  prince  were  disavowed  by  his  father,  the  king 
of  Holland,  and  equally  rejected  by  the  Belgians ;  and  the  latter 
made  a  formal  declaration  of  their  independence.  Soon  after,  the 
representatives  of  the  five  great  powers — France,  Great  Britain, 
Prussia,  Russia  and  Austria — assembled  in  London,  and  directed 
that  hostilities  should  cease  between  the  Dutch  and  Belgians.  The 
latter  having  decided  upon  a  constitutional  monarchy,  their  congress 
elected  Leopold,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg,  as  their  king.  As  the 
Dutch  continued  to  hold  the  city  of  Antwerp,  contrary  to  the  deter- 
mination of  the  five  great  powers,  a  French  army  entered  Belgium 
(1832  A.  D.)  and,  after  obstinate  defense,  compelled  the  surrender 
of  the  place.  Since  her  separation  from  Holland,  Belgium  has  in- 
creased rapidly  in  every  industrial  pursuit  and  social  improvement. 
Encouraged  by  the  success  of  the  people  in  the  days  of  July  in 
France,  the  patriots  in  Brunswick,  Saxony,  Hesse-Cassel  and  Han- 
over also  arose  in  sedition,  and  compelled  the  sovereigns  to  improve 
the  constitutions  of  their  lands.  Some  bold  malcontents  even 
designed  the  plan  of  setting  Germany  free  by  revolution.  On 
an  appomted  day,  some  bands  of  the  conspirators  entered  Frank- 
fort, killed  several  soldiers,  and  proclaimed  the  German  republic. 
But  the  scheme  was  already  betrayed ;  troops  marched  forward  and 
brought  the  enterprise  to  an  ignominious  end.  These  events  caused 
new  and  still  more  severe  decrees  of  the  German  confederation. 
The  Uberty  of  the  press  was  again  abridged,  and  all  political  clubs, 
assemblies   and  festivals  of  the  people  were   forbidden.     Nay,  the 


§  118.  Why  did  the  Belgians  dissolve  their  union  with  Holland  ?  How  long 
did  the  contest  last  ?  Who  tried  to  reconcile  them  with  the  latter  country  ? 
Who  disavowed  the  proposals  of  the  prince?  What  powers  wanted  the  hostili- 
ties to  cease  ?  What  of  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  ?  Of  Antwerp  ?  What 
army  interfered  in  the  struggle  ?  With  what  result  ?  How  did  Belgium  get 
along  after  her  separation  ?  What  of  Saxony,  Hanover,  etc.,  in  Germany  ?  What 
plan  did  some  malcontents  form  ?  Did  they  succeed  ?  Why  not  ?  What  did 
these  events  cause?  What  was  abridged  ?  What  forbidden  ?  What  secret  treaty 
was  formed  by  the  sovereigns  ? 


281 

sovereigns  vowed,  in  a  secret  treaty  at  Vienna,  to  annul  the  consti- 
tutions of  the  people  (1834  A.  D.) 

Frederic  William  III.  established  in  his  States  a  new  system  of 
regulating  the  customs  '(1^33  A.  D.*),  which  the  other  German 
States  have  since  joined.  It  is  called  "  German  ZoUverein."  By 
it  they  agreed  to  levy  customs  at  a  common  frontier.  Prussia 
became  its  center. 

§119.     Switzerland.     Political  Reforms.     Secession  War. 
Amendment  of  the  Constitution. 

The  desire  of  liberty  also  increased  more  and  more  in  the  Swiss 
nation.  The  cantons  of  Tessin,Vaud  and  Lucerne  first  amended  their 
constitutions;  soon  thousands  of  citizens  assembled,  too,  in  Zurich, 
and  in  most  of  the  cantons,  demanding  new  constitutions.  The 
expulsion  of  Charles  X.  gave  them  courage  to  make  such  demands. 
In  vain  the  governments  expected  assistance  from  the  Holy  Alli- 
ance ;  their  delay  caused  revolts  in  several  cantons.  The  patricians 
of  the  cities  resigned  their  power ;  everywhere  popular  constitu- 
tions were  established  (1830-1831  A.  D.)  New,  stirring  life  was 
roused  in  all  regenerated  cantons,  and  manifested  itself  by  all  kinds 
of  popular  creations.  National  education  took  a  free,  towering 
flight.     Ziirich  and  Berne  founded  universities. 

After  the  first  revolutionary  attempt  of  Louis  Napoleon,  the 
French  government  demanded  his  banishment  from  Switzerland, 
where  he  was  a  citizen.  The  foreign  powers  supported  the  demand, 
and  French  troops  marched  to  the  Swiss  frontier.  The  western 
cantons  armed  themselves  also,  and  a  Swiss  corps  of  soldiers  occu- 
pied the  frontier  frorn  Neuchatel  to  Basel.  But  Louis  Napoleon 
having  left  Switzerland  of  his  own  accord,  France  declared  herself 
to  be  satisfied  and  withdrew  her  troops. 

By  degrees  the  conservative  party  once  more  regained  its  power. 
When  Dr.  Strauss,  an  eminent  theologian,  was  called  as  professor  to 
Ziirich,  a  vehement  agitation  seized  the  people.  Most  of  the 
parishes  petitioned  against  his  call  (1839  A.  D.)     Strauss  was  pen- 

What  did  Frederic  William  III.  establish  ?  §  119.  What  Swiss  cantons 
amended  their  constitutions  ?  From  whom  did  the  governments  expect  assist- 
ance ?  What  did  the  patricians  resign  ?  What  was  established  ?  What  effects 
did  the  popular  commotions  cause  ?  Where  were  universities  founded  ?  Whose 
banishment  did  the  French  government  demand  ?  Who  occupied  the  Swiss 
frontier?  What  further  of  Louis  Napoleon?  What  party  later  regained- its  former 
power  ?     How  did  the  people  of  the  canton  Ziirich  like  the  call  of  Dr.  Strauss  ? 


282 

sioned.  A  multitude  assembled  and  directed  a  threatening  address 
to  the  government ;  they  armed  themselves,  and,  led  by  a  clergy- 
man, marched  to  Ziirich,  After  a  short  conflict,  in  which  some  of 
the  mutineers  were  shot,  the  government  dissolved  itself,  and  a  new 
one  was  constituted  by  the  victorious  party. 

A  similar  revolt  took  place  in  the  canton  of  Argovie,  the  con- 
vents being  at  the  head  of  the  commotion.  The  government  dis- 
persed the  revolters,  and  abolished  the  monasteries.  In  the  canton 
of  Lucerne  the  infatuated  people  changed  the  liberal  constitution ^ 
called  the  Jesuits  into  the  land,  and  concluded  a  separate  confedera- 
tion with  the  Catholic  cantons  for  the  purpose  of  defending  their 
religious  rights.  The  number  of  the  malcontents  in  Lucerne 
increased,  and  they  resolved  to  overthrow  the  government  of  the 
Jesuits.  Several  thousand  volunteers  of  the  liberal  cantons  invaded 
the  canton  in  order  to  support  them,  but  they  were  defeated,  and 
about  2,000  taken  prisoners.  Their  cantons  had  to  pay  large  sums 
of  ransom  for  their  release.  The  diet  ordered  the  seceders  to  dis- 
solve their  alliance,  and  to  dismiss  the  Jesuits,  and  resolved,  as  they 
refused  to  obey,  to  compel  them  by  force  of  arms  (1847  A.  D.) 
Dufour  was  general- in-chief  of  the  confederate  army,  comprising 
100,000  men.  First,  Freiburg,  the  bulwark  of  the  Jesuits,  was 
taken,  then  Lucerne  was  attacked,  and  the  army  of  the  secession- 
ists routed.  The  rulers  of  Lucerne  took  to  flight,  and  the  city  re- 
ceived her  deliverers  with  enthusiasm.  The  other  cantons,  too, 
submitted,  the  Jesuits  were  banished  forever,  and  the  convents, 
which  originated  the  war,  had,  principally,  to  defray  its  expenses. 
The  war  had  not  lasted  but  twenty-five  days,  and  did  not  cost  more 
than  about  one  hundred  human  lives.  This  happy  success  was 
brought  about  by  the  wise  conduct  of  the  army,  and  the  valor  and 
good  discipline  of  the  troops.  Peace  and  concord  was  restored  to 
all  regions  of  Switzerland. 

How  did  a  multitude  behave  towards  the  government  ?  Where  did  they 
march  to  ?  Who  was  their  leader  ?  What  did  they  constitute  ?  Where  did  a 
similar  revolt  take  place  ?  How  did  the  government  of  Argovie  deal  with  the 
revolters  and  monasteries  ?  What  did  the  people  of  Lucerne  change  ?  Whom 
did  they  call  into  the  land  ?  What  confederation  did  the  Catholic  cantons  con- 
clude }  By  whom  were  the  malcontents  of  Lucerne  .supported  ?  With  what 
success  ?  What  did  the  diet  order  the  seceders  to  do  ?  How  did  it  compel  them  ? 
How  large  was  the  army  of  the  confederates  ?  Who  was  general-in-chief  ?  What 
town  was  first  taken  ?  Which  one  then  ?  What  of  the  other  cantons  ?  Of  the 
Jesuits  ?     Of  convents  ?     How  long  did  the  war  last  ?     How  many  were  killed  ? 


283 

A  revision  of  the  confederacy  was  then  resolved  on,  and  a  new 
constitution  framed.  Its  most  important  enactments  are  the  follow- 
ing :  "  A  national  council,  elected  by  the  people,  and  a  states- 
council,  form  the  National  Assembly.  liberty  of  religion,  of  the 
press,  and  the  rights  of  petition  are  warranted.  The  cantons  are 
forbidden  to  allow  their  soldiers  to  go  into  foreign  service  for  hire. 
The  Order  of  Jesuits  is  never  more  to  be  admitted.  A  confederate 
council,  consisting  of  seven  members,  possesses  the  executive 
power." 

^  120.     Poland  and  Russia.     Revolution  in  Poland.     Cau- 
casian War.     Shamyl. 

According  to  the  decrees  of  the  congress  of  Vienna,  the  king- 
dom of  Polonia  should  have  a  separate  constitution ;  but  ere  long 
the  Russians  held  the  chief  places  of  government ;  the  article  of  the 
constitution  establishing  liberty  of  the  press  was  nullified ;  publicity 
of  debate  in  the  Polish  diet  was  abolished ;  Constantine,  brother  of 
Emperor  Nicholas,  governing  the  kingdom,  proved  to  be  the  worst 
of  tyrants,  etc.  These  reasons,  and  the  successful  examples  of 
France  and  Belgium,  roused  the  Polish  patriots  again  to  action.  The 
students  of  a  military  school  at  Warsaw  first  attempted  to  seize  Con- 
stantine at  his  quarters  (1830  A.  D.)  but  during  the  struggle  with  his 
attendants  he  escaped  to  his  guards,  and  fell  back  to  the  frontier. 
Chlopicki  was  first  appointed  commander-in-chief  by  the  provi- 
sional government,  and  afterwards  was  made  dictator,  but  he  soon 
resigned.  The  patriots  proposed  to  abolish  servitude  in  order  to 
gain  the  support  of  the  mass  of  the  nation;  but  the  aristocrats 
resisted  them,  confiding  in  the  mercy  of  the  Russian  emperor,  to 
whom  they  sent  deputies.  The  latter  refused  all  terms  but  absolute 
submission,  and  sent  an  army  of  200,000  men  into  Poland  under  the 
command  of  Field-marshal  Diebitsch.  Skrzynecki  (skshe-nets-ke) 
being  now  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Polish  forces, 
defeated  several  Russian  generals,  and  compelled  Diebitsch  to  retreat 

Give  the  most  important  enactments  of  the  new  constitution.  What  lil:)erties 
were  warranted  ?  What  of  mercenaries  ?  Of  the  Order  of  Jesuits  ?  Who  pos- 
sesses the  executive  power?  g  120.  What  wrongs  did  Poland  suffer  from  Rus- 
sia? Who  held  the  chief  offices?  What  of  liberty  of  the  press  and  of  public- 
ity of  debate  in  diet  ?  How  did  Constantine  govern  the  kingdom  ?  What  did 
the  students  of  the  military  school  at  Warsaw  attempt  ?  Who  was  the  first  com- 
mandei*-in-chief ?  What  did  the  patriots  propose?  And  why?  Who  resisted 
them  ?  In  whose  mercy  did  they  confide  ?  Did  they  succeed  ?  What  and. 
whom  did  Nicholas  send  ?     What  of  Skrzynecki  ?     Whom  did  he  defeat  ? 


284 

into  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  territories.  Thus  Prussia  and  Austria 
interpreted  and  enforced  the  principles  of  the  "  Holy  Alliance !  " 
Skrzynecki,  with  20,000  Polish  combatants,  forced  his  way  to 
Ostrolenka,  where  he  engaged  in  battle  with  60,000  Russians  (1831 
A.  D.)  The  combat  was  terrific ;  no  quarter  was  asked  and  none  was 
given.  The  Polish  army,  led  by  the  heroic  General  Bern,  lost  one- 
fourth  of  its  number.  The  Russians  had  three  generals  killed.  Soon 
after  Diebitsch  and  the  Grand-duke  Constantine  died  suddenly  of 
cholera — a  contagious  disease  which  came  from  Asia  to  Russia, 
spreading  from  there  through  most  of  the  lands  of  Europe,  and 
killing  hundreds  of  thousands. 

Dissensions  among  the  Polish  chiefs  increased,  and  Paskewitsch, 
who  had  succeeded  Diebitsch  in  the  command,  assembled  100,000 
men  at  Warsaw  to  storm  the  city.  Although  the  city  was  defended 
with  heroism,  yet,  after  two  days'  fighting,  in  which  20,000  Rus- 
sians were  slain,  the  cowardly  commander  of  Warsaw  surrendered  to 
the  Russian  general.  Large  numbers  of  the  fugitives  crossed  the 
frontiers  and  went  into  voluntary  exile  to  England,  France,  Switzer- 
land, and  other  countries.  The  universities  of  Warsaw  and  Wilna 
were  abolished ;  most  of  the  generals  who  surrendered  were,  un- 
der an  amnesty,  sent  to  difterent  parts  of  the  Russian  empire,  and  the 
soldiers  and  the  Polish  nobility  were  consigned  by  thousands  to  the 
dungeons  and  mines  of  Siberia,  Poland  was  declared  a  Russian 
province. 

Remarkable  also  is  Russia's  war  against  the  Mohammedan 
nations  which  Hve  in  the  Caucasus  mountains,  east  of  the  great 
military  road.  For  fully  one  century  it  had  endeavored  to  de- 
prive them,  by  cunning  and  cruelty,  of  their  independence;  but 
they  resisted  victoriously.  The  last  time  their  priests  were  leading 
the  combat,  and  made  it  a  matter  of  religion ;  therefore  it  was  waged 
with  the  utmost  irritation.  Their  chieftain,  Shamyl,  being  also  their 
most  revered  divine,  became  particularly  formidable  to  the  Russians. 
He  allured  General  Grabbe    (like  Arminius  did  the   Romans)  into 

Where  did  Diebitsch  retreat  to  ?  What  ot  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka  ?  Who 
died  soon  after  ?  What  of  the  cholera  ?  What  increased  among  the  Polish 
chiefs  ?  What  city  did  Paskewitsch  storm  ?  How  many  Russians  were  killed  ? 
Who  surrendered  Warsaw  ?  Where  did  many  fugitives  go?  What  of  the  uni- 
versities of  Warsaw  and  Wilna  ?  Of  the  surrendering  generals  ?  Of  the  cap- 
tured soldiers  and  noblemen  ?  What  did  Poland  become  ? — Of  what  did  Russia 
endeavor  to  deprive  the  nations  in  the  Caucasus  mountains  ?  Did  she  soon  suc- 
ceed ?  Who  were  their  leaders  in  the  combat  ?  Which  of  them  was  the  most 
formidable  ?     Where  did  he  allure  General  Grabbe  ? 


285 

impassable  forests,  and  killed  2,000  enemies,  with  most  of  the  offi- 
cers (1842  A.  D.)  Three  years  later  he  caused  Woronzoff  to  meet 
with  the  same  fate.  The  cholera  was  in  alliance  with  these  valorous 
tribes.  Seldom  a  Russian  soldier  returned  home  from  their  moun- 
tains. Emperor  Nicholas  attempted  to  destroy  their  forests  with 
sulphur  and  pitch.  An  idle  enterprise  !  The  siege  of  the  fortified 
village  of  Gergebil  was  also  a  failure  (1847  A.  D.)  Shamyl  every- 
where pushed  the  Russians  back  (1851  A.  D.)  The  Caucasians 
were  not  completely  subjugated  until  1859. 

g  121.     Great    Britain.     Emancipation    of    the    Catholics. 
Reform  of  the  Parliament.     The  Slaves  Emanci- 
pated.   Tne    Corn    Laws    Relaxed.       'Qonnell. 
Lord  Russell,     Dominion  in  the  East 
Indies.    War  Against  China. 

After  the  treaty  of  Paris  Great  Britain  again  subjected  Europe 
to  the  scepter  of  its  indus'try.  Nevertheless  the  people,  especially 
those  who  were  employed  in  factories,  lived  in  a  very  oppressed 
condition.  The  weight  of  the  public  debts  increased  so  much  that 
the  interest  alone  amounted  to  34,000,000  pounds  sterlmg.  But 
Ireland's  situation  was  the  most  helpless.  There  English  landlords 
possessed  most  of  the  estates  of  the  realm.  The  Irish  themselves 
were  only  their  tenants.  The  daily  lives  of  the  domestic  beasts 
were  to  be  preferred  to  their  own  condition.  In  the  same  way  the 
Irish  Church  property  belonged  to  the  EngUsh  clergy.  No 
Catholic-Irish  was  admitted  to  the  British  parliament.  Now,  the 
highly  esteemed  and  resolute  orator,  O'Connell,  putting  himself  at 
the  head  of  his  countrymen,  solicited  a  vacant  position  in  the  par- 
liament. He  was  elected,  though  a  powerful  Protestant  was  his 
competitor  (1828  A.  D.)  At  last  the  barriers  which  had  so  long 
excluded  Roman  Catholics  from  the  legislature  were  removed 
(1829  A.  D.) 

There  was  another  defect  in  the  organization  of  parliament. 
The  memberships  of  the  upper  house  were  hereditary,  and  for  the 

How  many  enemies  were  killed?  What  of  Woronzoff?  Of  the  cholera? 
What  did  Nicholas  try  in  vain?  What  of  the  siege  of  Gergebil?  When  were 
these  mountaineers  finally  subjugated  ?  ^  121.  Who  again  ruled  the  industry  of 
Europe  ?  In  what  condiiion  did  the  English  people  live  ?  What  was  the  amount 
of  the  interest  on  the  public  debt?  Whose  sil nation  was  the  most  helpless? 
Why?  To  whom  did  the  Irish  church  property  belong ?  Were  Irishmen  ad- 
mitted inlo  parliament  ?  Who  was  first  elected  ?  When  did  they  obtain  ad- 
mission into  the  legislature  ?  What  other  defect  was  there  in  the  organization 
of  parliament  ? 


286 

lower,  too,  but  few  elections  were  made  by  the  people  themselves. 
Most  of  them  depended  on  the  peers  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
on  other  rich  private^  persons.  This  abuse,  too,  was  forcibly  de- 
nounced. The  decided  sentiment  of  the  nation  in  favor  of  reform 
occasioned  the  resignation  of  the  Tory  ministry,  headed  by  the 
duke  of  Wellington,  and  a  Whig  ministry,  pledged  for  reform,  then 
came  into  power  (1830  A.  D.)  Lord  Russell  brought  forward  in 
parliament  the  ministerial  plan  for  reforming  the  representation  of 
the  realm  which,  if  adopted,  would  have  extended  the  right  of 
suffrage  to  half  a  million  additional  voters  (1831  A.  D.)  The  bill 
was  lost  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The  king  hastily  dissolved 
the  parliament,  and  ordered  new  elections.  The  advocates  of  re- 
form were  returned  by  nearly  all  the  large  constituencies.  The 
reform  bill,  being  again  introduced,  passed  the  Commons,  but  was 
rejected  by  the  Lords.  Popular  resentment  was  manifested 
by  serious  riots,  in  which  an  immense  amount  of  private  property 
and  many  public  buildings  were  destroyed.  The  bill  was  a  third 
time  introduced  by  Lord  Russell  and  again  defeated  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  Now,  all  members  of  the  cabinet  resigned;  political 
unions  were  formed  throughout  the  country ;  the  people  determined 
to  refuse  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  demanded  that  the  ministers 
should  be  reinstated.  It  was  done;  the  Lords  withdrew  their 
opposition,  and  the  bill  was  hurried  through  both  houses,  and  finally 
passed  (June  7,  183 1).  The  law  of  the  reform  of  the  Irish  Church 
also  relieved  the  burdens  the  Irish  had  to  bear  for  the  interest  of 
the  English  Church.  In  these  reforms,  and  generally  in  Ireland's 
wplfare,  O'Connell  concurred  with  the  greatest  energy.  After  this 
slave  emancipation  was  carried.  England,  after  paying  vast  sums 
in  indemnifying  the  planters,  set  the  slaves  at  liberty  in  her  colonies. 
According  to  the  Corn  Law,  a  high  duty  was  imposed  on  the 
import  of  foreign  cereals.  But,  as  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland  in 
1845  ^^'^s  ^  ^^^^^  failure,  in  consequence  of  unceasing  rain,  Minister 

Who  decidedly  desired  its  reform  ?  What  ministry  resigned  ?  Who  then 
came  into  power  ?  What  plan  did  Lord  Russell  propose  in  parliament  ?  Where 
was  the  bill  lost  ?  What  did  the  king  dissolve  ?  What  did  he  order  ?  What 
candidates  were  returned  ?  Where  did  the  bill  then  pass  ?  W^here  not  ?  How 
was  popular  resentment  manifested  ?  Who,  at  the  third  introduction  of  the  bill, 
opposed  it  again  ?  Who  then  resigned  ?  What  did  the  people  determine  to 
refuse  and  what  demand?  Who  now  consented  to  the  passage  of  the  bill? 
What  burdens  of  the  Irish  Church  were  also  relieved?  Who,  in  these  reforms, 
acted  with  energy  ?     What  was  the  meaning  of  the   Corn-Law  ? 


287 

Robert  Peel,  supported  by  the  Free-trade  League  and  its  popular 
leader,  Richard  Cobden,  proposed  in  parliament  the  repeal  of  the 
Corn  Law,  and  the  motion  was  carried,  though  not  without  fierce 
contest  in  both  houses. 

In  the  East  Indies  the  English  finished  the  subjection  of  the 
Mahrattas  (1817  A.  D.),  then  made  the  territory  of  Burmah  a  trib- 
utary, and  commenced  war  against  the  Sikhs  ("1845  ■^-  ^0  Their 
dominion  already  reaches  from  the  Indus  to  the  Irrawaddy,  and 
from  the  Himalaya  Mountains  to  Ceylon,  including  over  one  hun- 
dred millions  of  subjects,  and  about  one  hundred  milUons  of  tribu- 
tary inhabitants. 

In  order  to  revenge  the  insults  which  British  subjects  had  suf- 
fered from  China,  Great  Britain  waged  war  with  this  realm  (1839- 
1842  A.  D.),  and  compelled  it  to  open  to  her  ships  five  seaports, 
and  to  give  up  to  her  the  island  of  Hong  Kong. — As  princess  Vic- 
toria, daughter  of  the  duke  of  Kent,  and  granddaughter  of  George 
III.,  succeeded  to  the  throne, 'Hanover  was  separated  from  the 
crown  of  Great  Britain. 

^122.     United  States   of  North  America.     Indian  "Wars. 

War  with   Mexico.     Generals   Taylor    and    Scott. 

Battles  at  Buena  Vista  and  Chapultepec. 

Capture  of   Vera  Cruz  and  the 

City  of  Mexico. 

Under  the  administration  of  President  Jackson,  the  western 
Indians,  whose  chieftain  was  called  Black  Hawk,  began  hostilities 
against  the  inhabitants  of  Illinois  (1832  A.  D.)  A  batde  was  fought 
on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  Indians  were  defeated. 
They  had  to  give  up  large  tracts  of  western  lands.  Three  years 
after,  a  war  with  the  Seminole  Indians,  called  the  Florida  War, 
broke  out,  and  lasted  seven  years  (1835-1842  A.  D.)  The  cause  of 
the  war  was  an  attempt  by  the  United  States  government  to  remove 
the  Indians  to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi.  They  had  previously 
made  a  treaty  agreeing  to  remove  to  the  Indian  Territory,  but  iiow 
refused  to  do  so.     In  the  first  action  the  Indians  were  successful. 

On  what  occasion  did  Robert  Peel  propose  its  repeal  ?  Who  assisted  him  ? 
Was  the  law  repealed  ?  How  far  does  the  dominion  of  England  in  the  East 
Indies  reach  ?  How  many  millions  are  subject  and  tributary  to  her  ?  What  of 
her  war  with  China?  When  was  Hanover  separated  from  England?  §  122. 
Against  whom  did  the  Indian  chieftain  Black  Hawk  wage  war  ?  W^here  was  he 
defeated  ?  What  was  the  result  of  the  defeat  ?  How  long  did  the  Florida  war 
last  ?     What  was  the  cause  of  the  war  ?     Were  the  Indians  successful  ? 


288 

When  the  chief,  Osceola,  came  to  the  American  camp,  under  a  flag 
of  truce,  he  was  seized  and  imprisoned.  Colonel  Taylor  defeated 
the  Indians  at  Lake  Okechobee ;  then  they  retired  to  the  swamps 
and  kept  up  an  intermittent  war  till  1842;  finally  peace  was  estab- 
lished. 

As  congress  passed  a  new  tariff  bill  (1832  A.  D.),  laying  heavy 
protective  duties  on  imported  articles,  this  met  with  violent  opposi- 
tion, particularly  in  the  South,  where  the  people  did  not  manufac- 
ture much,  and  therefore  wanted  foreign  goods  as  cheap  as  possible. 
South  Carolina  led  the  resistance  to  the  bill.  A  convention  of  the 
people  of  that  State  said  that  it  should  be  null  and  void.  President 
Jackson  issued  a  proclamation  warning  the  people  that  the  law 
would  be  enforced.  South  Carolina  threatened  to  secede  from  the 
Union.  The  matter  was  settled  by  a  compromise,  as  Henry  Clay 
got  a  bill  passed  in  congress  providing  for  the  gradual  reduction  of 
the  duties. 

The  United  States  resolved  to  colonize  the  immense  territory  of 
the  Columbia  river  (1843  A.  D.),  and  admitted  the  repubHc  of 
Texas  into  the  Union  (1845  A.  D.)  This  country  had  previously 
belonged  to  the  United  States  of  Mexico ;  but  when  a  new  govern- 
ment in  Mexico  established  a  Central  Republic  (1835  A.  D.),  'and 
changed  the  sovereign  States  into  dependent  districts,  Texas  pro- 
tested against  this  mnovation,  and  joined  the  republic  of  the  United 
States.  The  Mexicans  would  not  agree  to  the  separation,  and  be- 
sides said  that  the  territory  of  Texas  had  never  extended  farther 
westward'  than  the  river  Nueces,  while  the  Texans  claimed  the 
country  as  far  as  the  Rio  Grande. 

General  Taylor  was  ordered  into  the  disputed  territory  (1845 
A.  D.)  Early  the  next  year  he  moved  to  the  Rio  Grande,  where  he 
built  Fort  Brown,  and  sent  Captain  Thornton  with  a  party  of 
soldiers  up  the  river  to  reconnoitre.  This  party  fell  into  a  Mexican 
ambuscade,  and  was  compelled  to  surrender.  When  congress 
heard  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Thornton's  party,  it  declared  that 

Who  was  imprisoned  ?  Who  defeated  the  Indians  ?  Where  did  they  retire  ? 
What  bill  met  opposition  in  the  South  in  1832  ?  Why  ?  Who  headed  it  ?  What 
did  the  convention  of  South  Carolina  say  ?  Who  would  enforce  the  law  ?  What 
did  South  Carolina  threaten  to  do  ?  Who  compromised  the  matter  ?  In  what 
manner  ?  What  republic  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1845  ?  Why  did  Texas 
separate  from  Mexico.-*  Did  the  latter  agree  to  the  separation?  Into  what  part 
of  Texas  was  General  Taylor  ordered  ?  What  fort  did  he  build  there  ?  What 
of  Captain  Thornton  ?     What  did  Congress  declare  when  he  was  captured  ? 


289 

war  existed  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  (nth  of  May, 
1846).  Taylor  met  and  defeated  6,000  Mexicans  at  Palo  Alto  (the 
8th  of  May),  and  next  day*  defeated  another  army  at  Resaca  de  la 
Palma.  The  United  States  now  planned  the  invasion  of  Mexico  on 
three  different  lines.  Taylor  was  to  operate  on  the  line  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  a  column  was  to  invade  the  Spanish  possessions  of  New 
Mexico  and  California,  and  another  was  to  enter  the  northern 
States  of  Mexico.  General  Taylor  captured  9,000  Mexicans  at 
Monterey,  and  completely  vanquished  an  army  of  20,000  men, 
under  command  of  General  Santa  Anna,  in  the  narrow  mountain 
pass  of  Buena  Vista  (1847  A.  D.) 

About  one  year  previous  Captain  Fremont,  of  the  topographical 
engineers,  had  been  sent  by  the  government  to  seek  a  new  route  to 
Oregon,  farther  south  than  the  one  usually  traveled  by  emigrants. 
While  he  was  in  California,  the  Mexican  commander  in  that  prov- 
ince was  raising  a  force  to  expel  the  American  settlers.  Fremont 
was  ordered  to  protect  them.  They  now  flocked  to  his  standard, 
and  he  beat  the  Mexicans  in  several  conflicts,  and  compelled  them 
to  retire  southward.  He  and  Commodore  Stockton  accomplished 
the  overthrow  of  Mexican  authority  in  California  (1847  A.  D.) 

General  Scott,  aided  by  a  considerable  part  of  Taylor's  army, 
besieged  Vera  Cruz,  and  after  a  furious  bombardment,  the  castle  and 
city  surrendered  (March  29,  1847).  He  now  began  to  advance  on 
the  city  of  Mexico,  stormed  the  works  at  the  mountain  pass  of 
Cerro  Gordo,  and  routed  the  Mexican  army,  newly  collected  by 
Santa  Anna.  In  the  fortified  camp  of  Contreras,  at  Cherubusco,  in 
the  stone  building  called  Molino  del  Rey,  and  at  the  castle  of  Cha- 
pultepec  the  Americans  defeated  the  Mexicans  again.  The  whole 
Mexican  army  was  routed,  and  Scott  entered  the  city  of  Mexico 
(Sept.  14,  1847  A.  D.)  By  the  treaty  of  Guadaloupe;- Hidalgo 
(1848  A.  D.)  Mexico  ceded  to  the  United  States  the  vast  territory 
now  comprised  in  New  Mexico,  Utah  and  California.     In  return, 

Where  did  Taylor  defeat  the  Mexicans  ?  Where  again  ?  ^  How  many  ?  On 
what  line  of  Mexico  was  Taylor  to  operate  ?  In  what  parts  of  the  country  a 
second  and  a  third  column?  How  many  Mexicans  did  Taylor  capture  at  Mon- 
terey ?  Where  did  he  vanquish  Santa  Anna  ?  How  large  was  the  Mexican 
army  ?  What  commission  had  the  government  given  to  Captain  Fremont  ? 
Whom  did  the  Mexican  commander  intend  to  expel  from  California  ?  What  was 
Fremont  ordered  to  do  ?  How  did  he  execute  the  order  ?  What  of  Commo- 
dore Stockton  ?  What  city  did  General  Scott  besiege  ?  To  what  city  did  he  then 
advance?  Give  an  account  of  his  exploits?  What  countries 'did  Mexico  cede 
to  the  United  States  ? 

(19; 


290 

Mexico  received  a  compensation  of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars. 
Thousands  of  settlers  and  adventurers  have  since  flocked  to  Califor- 
nia, in  order  to  gain  a  fortune  in  its  ridi  gold-mines.  The  amount 
of  gold  taken  out  between  1849  and  1870  is  calculated  at  over 
$1,000,000,000. 

3.  THE  EE VOLUTIONS  IN  1848. 


^  123.     France.     Dethronement    of   Louis  Philippe.     Es- 
tablishment of  a  Republic    and  of   an   Empire. 
Louis    Napoleon    III.      Franco-German 
War.    Battle  at  Sedan.     Restora- 
tion of   the  Republic. 

The  bad  election  law,  according  to  which  only  the  richer  citizens 
had  the  right  to  elect  deputies  for  the  second  chamber,  induced  the 
opposition  party  to  work  for  a  reform  of  the  elections.  During  the 
winter  of  1847-8  numerous  political  reform  banquets  were  held 
throughout  France.  The  leaders  of  the  opposition  having  announced 
that  such  banquets  would  be  held  on  February  2 2d  (Washington's 
birthday),  the  government  on  the  evening  preceding  the  2  2d,  forbade 
the  intended  meeting  in  Paris,  and  made  extensive  military  prepara- 
tions to  crush  at  once  any  attempt  at  insurrection.  Irritated  by  these 
measures,  masses  of  the  people  assembled  on  the  2  2d,  without 
causing  any  disturbance ;  but  the  following  day  they  were  erecting 
barricades,  and  began  to  fight  against  the  soldiers,  crying :  "  Long 
live  the  Reform  !  Down  with  Guizot  (the  prime  minister) !  "  The 
national  guards  declared  themselves  for  the  people,  and  demanded 
also  the  dissolution  of  the  Ministry.  The  ministers  resigned ;  now  the 
uproar  subsided,  and  the  people  dispersed,  the  workmen  only  remain- 
ing behind  the  barricades.  But  when  the  soldiers  in  front  of  Guizot's 
palace  fired  upon  the  multitude,  killing  many,  the  combat  was  again 
inflamed,  and  the  cry :  "  To  arms  !  Down  with  the  assassins ! 
Down  with  Louis  Philippe !  Down  with  the  Bourbons ! "  re- 
sounded throughout  Paris.  The  first  day  the  contest  was  con- 
tinued. The  king  appointed  Odilon  Barrot  as  minister  in  order 
to    reconcile  the  people,  but   in  vain.      The  troops  were  discour- 

What  did  she  receive  in  return  ?  Why  did  many  people  go  to  California  ? 
What  amount  of  gold  was  furnished  by  the  mines  in  20  years  ?  §  123.  What 
induced  the  opposition  party  to  work  for  a  reform  of  the  elections  ?  ■  What  ban- 
quets were  held  in  France  ?  Where  was  the  banquet  forbidden,  and  what  prep- 
arations were  made  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  events  of  the  22d  of  February  and 
the  following  days. 


291 

aged  by  the  pressing  masses.  Philippe  then  declared  himself 
to  be  ready  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  grandson,  the  count 
of  Paris ;  the  workmen,  however,  would  not  have  any  more 
Bourbons,  but  wanted  a  republic  and  a  constitution  by  which  the 
general  right  of  election  was  established,  and  labor  warranted  by 
the  State  to  the  poorer  classes,  believing  that  it  is  the  duty  and  in 
the  power  of  government  to  provide  for  all  their  wants.  They 
advanced  farther,  and  rushed  to  the  Tuileries.  The  king  had  to 
hurriedly  quit  Paris  with  his  family.  In  vam  the  count  of  Paris 
presented  himself,  led  by  his  mother,  in  the  hall  of  deputies. 
They  also  had  to  quickly  withdraw  from  the  entering  populace. 
The  people  appointed  a  provisional  government,  the  leading  mem- 
ber of  which  was  M.  Lamartine,  and  to  whom  belongs  the  renown 
of  having  saved  the  country  from  immediate  anarchy.  The  ses- 
sions of  the  Peers  were  prohibited,  free  elections  arranged,  national 
workshops  established,  the  hours  of  labor  in  the  factories  reduced, 
capital  punishment  for  political  offenses,  the  titles  of  the  nobility, 
and  slavery  abolished,  gratuitous  instruction  in  the  public  schools 
ordered,  the  republic  in  the  whole  country  acknowledged,  the 
Orleans  family  banished,  and  a  Constitutional  National  Assembly 
convened.  However,  many  workmen  were  not  satisfied  with  the 
accorded  grants.  They  surrounded  the  National  Assembly,  drove 
the  deputies  from  their  seats,  and  tried  to  dissolve  the  government 
(15th  of  May).  But  in  the  meantime  the  national  guard  was 
called  out.  The  rioters  were  soon  dispersed,  and  the  government 
reinstated.  Finding  the  burdens  imposed  on  the  public  treasury  too 
heavy  to  be  borne,  and  thousands  of  workmen  unprofitably  em- 
ployed in  the  public  workshops,  the  government  ordered  such  as 
were  born  in  the  provinces  to  return  home,  and  the  younger  ones  of 
the  remainder  to  enlist  in  the  army.  Then  they  fought  the  combat 
of  despair  against  150,000  men  (June  20-26).  General  Cavaignac 
vanquished  them.  Many  thousands  were  killed,  thousands  of  pris- 
oners transported  to  the  transmarine  possessions  of  France,  the 
public  workshops  locked,  the  former  hours  of  labor  restored,  and 


What  did  Philippe  declare  ?  But  what  was  he  answered  by  the  workmen  ? 
What  kind  of  a  constitution  did  they  want  ?  What  was  the  king  obliged  to 
do  ?  And  the  Count  of  Paris  ?  Who  was  the  leading  member  of  the  provis- 
ional government?  What  decrees  did  it  pass?  Were  all  workmen  satisfied 
with  them  ?  What  did  some  try  to  effect  ?  Did  they  succeed  ?  What  did  the 
government  order  ?  What  combat  followed  ?  Who  vanquished  the  refractory 
workmen  ?     What  did  the  government  then  effect  ? 


292 

Cavaignac  declared  dictator.  The  republic  received  a  new  consti- 
tution, with  one  legislative  assembly.  The  executive  power  should 
be  vested  in  a  president,  to  be  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  for  a 
term  of  four  years.  Its  principles  were  declared  to  be  liberty, 
equality  and  fraternity.  Louis  Napoleon  was  elected  president, 
receiving  five  and  a  half  miUions  of  votes,  seven  and  a  half  millions 
having  been  polled  in  the  nation.  He  solemnly  swore  "  to  remain 
faithful  to  the  democratic  republic."  But  on  the  morning  of  the 
2d  of  December,  1851,  the  inhabitants  of  Paris  awoke  to  find  the 
city  filled  with  troops,  while  he  announced  the  dissolution  of  the 
National  Assembly,  the  restoration  of  universal  suffrage  which  the 
assembly  had  restricted  by  disfranchising  three  millions  of  electors^ 
and  the  establishment  of  martial  law  throughout  Paris.  The  chief 
members  of  the  Assembly,  together  with  Generals  Cavaignac,  Chan- 
gamier  and  others,  had  been  seized  in  their  beds,  and  were  already 
in  prison.  The  coup  d'etat  was  entirely  successful,  and  Louis  Napo- 
leon was  absolute  dictator  of  France.  About  300  members  of  the 
assembly,  who  declared  him  guilty  of  treason,  and  proclaimed  his 
deposition,  were  surrounded  by  a  band  of  soldiers  and  all  marched 
to  prison.  He  threatened  to  abdicate,  if  the  people  did  not  elect  him 
president  for  ten  years.  An  insurrection  broke  out  in  Paris  (Dec. 
4th);  he  called  out  troops,  killed  about  1,000  insurgents,  and 
quelled  all  resistance.  His  demand  was  accepted,  the  people  elect- 
ing him  president  for  ten  years  (Jan.  i,  1852).  He  caused  many 
thousands  of  his  adversaries,  also  Cavaignac,  Chan  gamier,  Lamo- 
riciere,  etc.,  to  be  banished  or  deported.  Before  a  year  had  passed, 
the  senate,  in  compliance  with  his  will,  adopted  a  measure  to  re- 
establish the  imperial  government,  and  the  people  were  called  upon 
to  ratify  the  measure  by  their  votes.  A  great  majority  were  in  favor 
of  the  empire  (November  20-22).  The  nation,  dazzled  by  the 
splendor  of  the  merits  of  his  uncle,  desired  to  have  the  empire 
restored. 

The  next  year  Louis  Napoleon,  together  with  England,  planned 
the  Crimean  war  against  Russia  (see  §  127).  But  Europe  did 
not  afford  adequate  scope  for  the  scheming  emperor.     The  misrule 

Who  should  have  the  executive  power  ?  VVho  was  elected  president  ?  What 
did  Louis  Napoleon  swear?  What  violent  act  did  he  perform  on  the  2d  of 
December  ?  Who  was  arrested .?  What  did  he  threaten  ?  What  broke  out  ? 
How  did  he  quell  the  resistance  ?  What,  did  the  people  do?  How  did  Napoleon 
deal  with  his  adversaries  ?  What  measure  did  the  senate  and  the  people  soon 
adopt  ?     What  scheme  did  he  devise  concerning  Mexico  ? 


293 

and  disorder  in  Mexico  induced  him  to  send  his  troops  there.  The 
Mexican  president  fled,  and  Napoleon,  from  a  Mexican  assembly, 
procured  a  resolution  permitting  him  to  found  a  monarchy,  and  to 
offer  the  crown  to  Archduke  Maximilian,  brother  to  the  emperor  of 
Austria.  Maximilian  accepted  the  fatal  gift  (1863  A.  D.)  So  long 
as  the  French  soldiers  upheld  him,  he  maintained,  with  success,  an 
incessant  conflict  with  the  republican  authority,  which  he  had  dis- 
placed. But  when  those  were  withdrawn  by  Napoleon,  MaximiHan 
was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  and  shot  (1867  A.  D.) 

The  victories  which  Prussia  gained  over  Austria,  and,  in  general, 
the  rising  power  of  the  former  State,  aroused  the  envy  and  jealousy 
of  the  French  nation,  as  well  as  of  her  emperor.  A  cry  arose  for 
immediate  war;  a  pretext  for  a  quarrel  was  easily  found.  The 
Spaniards,  searching  for  a  king,  offered  the  crown  to  Prince  Leo- 
pold, of  Hohenzollern,  a  kinsman  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  who  might 
be  regarded  as  head  of  the  family  of  which  Leopold  was  a  member. 
Though  the  prince  announced  his  refusal  of  the  vacant  throne, 
Louis  Napoleon  demanded  a  pledge  that  the  king  would  never,  in 
any  future  time,  permit  his  kinsman  to  accept  the  overtures  of 
Spain.  "  Prussia,"  repHed  the  king,  "  was  in  no  way  concerned 
in  the  transactions  of  Prince  Leopold  and  the  Spanish  government, 
and  would  not  mix  herself  up  with  them."  Napoleon  then  de- 
clared war  against  Prussia,  although  he  was  illy-prepared  for  its 
emergencies,  his  army  comprising  only  220,000  men,  while  the 
German-Prussian  army  numbered  450,000,  led  by  Count  Moltke,  the 
greatest  military  genius  of  Europe,  and  other  eminent  commanders 
(July  19,  1870).  Marshal  Bazaine,  commanding  the  army  at  Metz, 
fought  two  indecisive  battles,  and  finding  it  impossible  to  break 
through  the  German  lines,  withdrew  to  the  shelter  of  the  fortress. 
MacMahon,  commander  of  another  army,  hastened  to  his  relief. 
While  on  the  march  he  was  surrounded  at  Sedan,  north  of  Metz, 
by  two  German  armies,  which,  with  500  pieces  of  artillery,  carried 
all   the   French   positions   and   sent   an   incessant   storm  of  shells 

What  were  his  proceedings  ?  Who  became  emperor  of  Mexico  ?  What  was 
his  faie  ?  What  did  the  victories  of  Prussia  excite  in  Napoleon  and  the  French 
nation  ?  What  did  they  want  ?  What  pretext  of  war  did  Louis  Napoleon  con- 
ceive ?  What  pledge  did  he  demand  from  the  king  of  Prussia  ?  What  did  the 
king  reply?  What  did  the  former  then  declare  ?  Was  he  prepared  ?  What  was 
the  relative  standing  of  the  French  and  German  armies,  and  what  of  the  German 
commanders  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  war.  What  was  the  issue  of  the  battle 
at  Sedan  ?     What  was  the  fate  of  Louis  Napoleon  ? 


294 

among  the  French  troops.  Napoleon,  who  was  present  at  the 
battle,  surrendered  with  83,000  men  (Sept.  i,  1870),  and  was  taken 
as  a  prisoner  to  Germany.  When  he  was  liberated,  he  went  to 
England  (1871  A.  D.),  where  he  died  (1873  A.  D.) 

Now  the  way  to  Paris  was  clear  for  the  Germans.  As  soon  as 
the  disaster  of  Sedan  was  known  there,  the  Parisians  deposed  Napo- 
leon and  established  a  republic.  The  Germans  completely  sur- 
rounded the  city  which,  after  four  months,  during  which  the  inhabit- 
ants endured  starvation,  capitulated  to  the  enemies  (Jan.  30,  1871). 
Now  the  adherents  of  the  commune  of  Paris  undertook  to  found 
a  government  of  their  own.  They  seized  Paris,  manned  its  defenses, 
and  defied  the  republican  government.  For  many  weeks  the 
French  army  besieged  and  shelled  the  capital.  When  at  last  an 
entrance  was  forced  into  the  city,  thousands  of  insurgents  were 
killed  or  made  prisoners. 

The  terms  of  peace  with  France  were  severe.  Germany  took 
back  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  .snatched  from  her  by  Louis  XIV.  She 
demanded  an  indemnity  of  2,200,000,000  pounds  sterling,  in  reim- 
bursement of  the  charges  to  which  France  had  unjustly  put  her.  A 
German  army  would  remain  on  French  territory,  upheld  at  French 
expense,  till  this  huge  claim  was  fully  satisfied.  M.  Thiers  was  now 
president  of  the  republic.  He  was  able  to  discharge  in  full  the 
claims  of  Germany,  and  terminate  the  occupation  within  the  period 
fixed  for  that  purpose  by  the  treaty. — The  present  incumbent  of  the 
presidency  is  M.  Grevy. — Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  the  only  son  of 
Napoleon  IIL,  who  fought  as  a  volunteer  in  the  English  army 
against  the  Zulus  in  South  Africa,  was  killed  by  them  (1879  A.  D.) 

2  124.     Germany.     Insurrections   in    Berlin    and    in    the 

Grand-dukedom     of    Baden.      Gernaan    National 

Assembly.     Sehleswig  and  Holstein.     Prusso- 

Austrian   War.     Battle  of  Sadowa. 

The  French  revolution  in  the  year  1848  caused  also  vehement 
popular  commotions  m  all  States  of  Germany.  The  month  of 
March  everywhere  effected  insurrections,  popular  assemblies,  peti- 


Who  deposed  him  ?  What  government  was  established  ?  What  of  the  siege 
of  Paris  ?  Of  the  commune  of  Paris  ?  By  whom  was  it  besieged  and  vanquished  ? 
What  were  the  terms  of  peace  with  P" ranee  ?  Who  was  president  of  the  republic  ? 
How  did  he  discharge  the.  claims  of  Germany  ?  Who  is  now  ( 1883)  president  of 
the  French  republic?  How  did  prince  Louis  Napoleon  lose  his  life?  g  124. 
What  did  the  French  revolution  cause  in  Germany  ? 


295 

tions  and  addresses,  and  on  the  part  of  the  governments,  different 
concessions,  viz.,  dismission  of  hated  ministers,  calHng  of  diets,  and 
grants  of  new  rights  and  Hberties.  The  king  of  Bavaria  resigned 
the  throne.  The  idea  of  a  National  Assembly  also  became  public. 
The  diet  met  it  half  way,  summoning  the  German  governments  to 
order  elections  for  a  National  Assembly.  Meanwhile,  a  precon- 
certing parliament  convened  in  Frankfort.  They  planned  a  central 
constitution  by  which  all  enactments  not  harmonizing  with  it  should 
be  null  and  void,  and  elected  Archduke  John  of  Austria  regent  of 
the  empire.  Germany  should  become  a  hereditary  monarchy  with 
a  legislative  assembly,  comprising  two  houses,  the  house  of  the 
States,  and  a  national  one.  A  deputation  of  the  assembly  offered 
the  imperial  crown  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  upon  condition  of  his 
accepting  the  new  constitution,  but  he  rejected  the  dignity  offered 
him  by  the  people.  On  the  contrary,  thousands  (and  among  them 
even  members  of  the  National  Assembly)  demanded  the  establish- 
ment of  a  German  republic.  The  disunion  of  the  deputies  in- 
creased. Many  left  Frankfort  of  their  own  accord,  or  by  order  of 
their  governments.  When  their  number  had  considerably  decreased , 
the  rump  parHament  was  transferred  to  Stuttgart,  and  as  it  here  en- 
deavored to  deprive  the  government  of  its  power,  the  hall  where  it 
held  its  sessions  was  locked  up  (1849  A.  D.)  Afterwards  the  regent 
also  resigned,  and  the  old  diet  was  revived.' 

In  Berlin,  the  people  demanded  the  assembling  of  the  States- 
General,  unlimited  freedom  of  the  press,  etc.  The  answer  of  the 
king  not  being  satisfactory,  scenes  of  bloodshed  took  place  (since 
March  14th,  1848).  King  Frederic  Wilham  IV.,  however,  accorded 
all  demands  (March  i8th);  the  people,  masses  of  whom  were 
assembled  in  front  of  the  palace,  received  the  news  with  enthusiasm. 
But  immediately  after  this,  troops  made  their  appearance;  they 
charged,  with  fixed  bayonets,  and  fired  upon  the  people.  The 
whole  city  now  rises  in  uproar;  the  German  liberty-flag  appears; 
citizens,  students  and  workmen  hasten  to  the  combat;  barricades 

What  concessions  did  the  sovereigns  make  ?  What  idea  became  public  ?  Who 
did  it  meet  half  way  ?  What  did  the  preconcerting  parliament  plan  ?  Who  was 
chosen  regent  of  the  empire  ?  What  did  others  demand  ?  What  was  the  con- 
sequence of  the  disunion  ?  What  of  the  rump-parliament  in  Stuttgart  ?  Of  the 
regent  ?  Of  the  old  diet  ?  What  did  the  people  of  Berlin  demand  ?  What 
answer  did  the  king  give  ?  What  followed  ?  What  did  the  former  then  accord  ? 
Was  he  in  earnest  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  contest  of  the  people  against  the 
troops.     Who  took  part  in  the  combat  ? 


296 

are  erected,  and  courageously  defended.  They  shoot  even  from  the 
roofs;  the  soldiers  fire  with  grape-shot  and  bomb-shells;  whole  reg- 
iments are  repelled.  Deputies  of  the  people  beseech  the  king  to 
withdraw  the  soldiers ;  he  refuses,  and  the  contest  is  continued  the 
whole  night ;  the  arsenal  is  assailed ;  a  young  workman,  Gustavus 
Hesse,  leads  the  bands,  and  the  next  day  the  people  take  the  arse- 
nal. The  king  was  compelled  to  remove  the  troops,  and  to  accede 
to  the  abdication  of  the  hereditary  prince  of  Prussia,  because  he 
had  ordered  the  attack  of  the  troops.  The  prince  left  the  country, 
but  soon  returned,  and  was  even  a  member  of  the  Prussian  National 
Assembly,  which  met  May  22d.  Later,  the  king  dissolved  it, 
declared  Berlin  in  a  state  of  siege,  and  gave  the  kingdom  a  consti- 
tution according  to  his  pleasure. 

In  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden  a  part  of  the  people,  led  by 
Hecker,  Struve  and  other  valorous  patriots,  fought  with  the  aim  of 
establishing  a  republic  (1848  A.  D,);  the  grand-duke  took  to  flight, 
and  asked  Prussia  for  help.  The  Prussians  and  other  German 
troops  then  drew  near,  drove  the  army  of  the  republicans  south- 
ward and  dispersed  it.  Many  returned  to  their  homes ;  some  thou- 
sands retired  to  Switzerland.  The  jails  and  casemates  were  filled 
with  prisoners,  many  of  whom  were  shot.  These  poHtical  afflic- 
tions, to, which,  in  some  countries,  famine  was  added,  induced  thou- 
sands to  emigrate  to  America. 

Schleswig  and  Holstein,  the  two  southern  duchies  of  Denmark, 
which  had  always  been  governed  by  the  king  of  Denm.ark  in  his 
capacity  of  a  prince  of  Germany,  irritated  by  his  endeavor  to  in- 
corporate them  into  his  realm,  resisted  his  enterprise,  and  solicited 
admission  into  the  German  confederation  (184S  A.  D.)  Assisted 
by  Prussian  and  other  German  volunteers,  they  waged  war  against 
the  Danish  king.  Afterwards  they  had  to  do  the  fighting  alone, 
and  finally  to  submit  again  to  the  king  (1851  A.  D.),  because  the 
German  diet  ordered  them  to  do  so. 

After  his  death,  Christian  IX.  succeeded   him   on   the  throne 


What  did  the  people  beseech  the  king  to  do  ?  What  public  building  was  as- 
sailed ?  Who  was  the  leader  of  the  assailants  ?  With  what  success  ?  What 
was  the  king  compelled  to  do  ?  Did  he  stand  to  his  promise  ?  What  of  the 
prince  ?  How  did  the  king  later  deal  with  Berlin  and  the  kingdom  .-'  What  aim 
had  the  patriots  in  the  State  of  Baden  ?  Whom  did  its  ruler  ask  for  help  ? 
What  of  the  republican  army  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  the  captives  ?  Where  did 
many  emigrate  to  ?  What  duchies  of  Denmark  did  the  king  endeavor  to  incor- 
porate into  his  realm  ?  Who  resisted  him  ?  Assisted  by  whom  ?  Why  had 
they  to  submit  again  to  the  king  ? 


297 

(1863  A.  D.) ;  but  his  right  of  succession  to  the  duchies  of  Hol- 
stein  and  Schleswig  was  contested  by  the  duke  of  Augustenburg. 
Prussia  and  Austria,  uniting  in  a  common  cause,  went  still  further ; 
they  marched  a  formidable  army  into  Schleswig  and  compelled  the 
king  to  cede  the  two  allies  both  duchies.  Prussia  then  tried  to  in- 
duce Austria  to  cede  to  her  all  her  rights  to  the  duchies.  When  the 
latter  declared  that  the  question  of  the  duchies  appertained  to  the 
German  diet,  Prussia,  with  some  other  States,  withdrew  from  the 
confederation,  and  occupied  Holstein.  Moreover,  the  king  of 
Prussia,  in  order  to  divide  the  forces  of  his  rival,  entered  into  a 
secret  alliance  with  the  king  of  Italy,  who  cherished  the  idea  of 
conquering  Venetia.  War  was  accordingly  declared  against  Austria 
by  the  two  allied  powers  (June,  1866).  But  the  Italians  were  de- 
feated, and  compelled  to  retreat.  Prussia  fought  with  better  suc- 
cess; her  troops  entered  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel  and  Saxony,  and 
took  possession  of  these  States.  At  the  same  time  she  invaded  the 
Austrian  empire  with  about  300,000  men,  in  two  armies — the  one 
marching  from  Saxony,  commanded  by  Prince  Frederic  Charles; 
the  other  proceeding  from  Silesia,  under  the  crown-prince  of  Prus- 
sia. Field-marshal  Benedek,  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Aus- 
trian forces  engaged  in  the  north,  ineffectually  endeavored  to  pre- 
vent a  junction  of  the  two  armies ;  after  which,  the  king  of  Prussia 
took  the  command  in  person.  Benedek  was  compelled  to  accept 
a  general  engagement  against  the  enemies,  far  superior  in  number, 
and  to  whom  the  needle-gun  gave  another  decided  advantage. 
The  battle  of  Sadowa,  after  eight  or  ten  hours  of  fearful  struggle, 
terminated  in  the  rout  of  the  Austrians,  with  a  loss  of  40,000  men 
(July  3d).  The  campaign  had  only  lasted  seven  days.  The  em- 
peror of  Austria,  unwilling  to  protract  so  disastrous  a  war,  con- 
cluded the  Treaty  of  Nicholsburg,  by  which  he  ceded  Venetia  to 
the  king  of  Italy,  abandoned  all  claim  of  forming  a  part  of  the  con- 
federation, which  the  king  of  Prussia  intended  to  organize  on  the 
north  of  the  Maine  river,  and  gave  up  his  rights  to  the  duchies  of 

To  whom  was  Christian  IX.  compelled  to  cede  the  duchies  ?  \Yhom  would 
Prussia  induce  to  cede  them  to  her  ?  Why  did  she  withdraw  from  the  German 
confederation  ?  What  State  did  she  occupy  ?  With  whom  did  she  enter  into  a 
secret  alliance  ?  Against  whom  did  the  king  of  Italy  wage  war  ?  With  what 
success  ?  What  German  States  did  Prussia  occupy  ?  What  empire  did  she  in- 
vade .-'  Give  an  account  of  the  campaign.  From  what  countries  did  her  armies 
make  the  invasion  ?  What  was  the  Austrian  commander  unable  to  prevent  ? 
How  did  he  succeed  in  the  battle  ?  How  many  men  did  he  lose  ?  How  long 
did  the  campaign  last  ?     What  were  the  conditions  of  peace  ? 


298 

Holstein  and  Schleswig.  The  southern  States  of  Germany  later 
also  joined  the  new  confederation,  and  when  the  union  of  the  dif- 
ferent States  was  accomplished,  united  Germany  was  a  fit  match  for 
the  contest  with  France,  which  broke  out  in  1870  (see  France, 
§  123).  William,  king  of  Prussia,  returned  from  that  war  as  emperor 
of  Germany  (1881  A.  D.)  This  country  was  now  supreme  in  cen- 
tral Europe.  WilHam's  success  was  due  to  his  able  generals,  and 
especially  to  his  great  prime  minister,  Prince  Bismarck,  whose  poht- 
ical  power  was  prevalent  in  Germany  and  in  whole  Europe.  Since 
Bismarck  has  been  at  the  helm  of  the  German  empire,  however,  he 
has  endeavored  to  tread  out  every  spark  of  liberty.  They  call  him 
"  the  man  of  blood  and  iron." 

§  125.      Austria.     Insurrection    in    Vienna.     Refornns    of 

the  Government,     War  in  Hungary.     Kossuth. 

Gorgey  Surrenders  at  Villagos. 

The  news  that  the  republic  had  been  proclaimed  in  France  also 
caused  general  excitement  in  Vienna.  The  students  and  citizens 
demanded  from  Emperor  Ferdinand  a  free  constitution,  and  espe- 
cially the  reform  of  the  public  schools  (March  12th,  1848).  When 
the  soldiers,  on  the  next  day,  killed  several  persons,  the  infuriated 
people  attacked  the  arsenal,  the  imperial  palace,  and  several  other 
buildings,  and  demanded  the  removal  of  Minister  Metternich.  As 
the  latter  resigned,  the  people  expressed  the  greatest  joy.  When 
still  more  troops  arrived,  however,  the  national  guard  was  organ- 
ized, and  the  students  took  to  arms.  The  emperor  granted  more 
reforms.  He  accorded  liberty  of  the  press,  promised  to  call  a 
National  Assembly,  and  to  grant  a  free  constitution.  The  tithes 
ought  to  be  redeemed,  etc.  When  the  party  of  the  court  was 
threatening  to  again  deprive  the  people  of  these  grants,  the  latter,, 
uttering  menaces,  demanded  a  diet  for  the  purpose  of  framing  a 
constitution.  The  emperor,  indeed,  conceded  this  also,  but  imme- 
diately left  Vienna.  Soon  after  the  first  Austrian  diet  began  its  ses- 
sions (2 2d  of  May).  The  order  to  dissolve  and  disarm  the  aca- 
demic legion  caused  the  students  to  erect  barricades,  and  to  fight  the 

When  did  William  become  emperor  of  Germany  ?  To  whom  was  his  success 
due  ?  ^  125.  What  did  the  citizens  and  students  of  Vienna  demand  from  em- 
peror Ferdinand  ?  What  did  the  people  do  when  the  soldiers  killed  several  per- 
sons? What  of  Metternich?  When  was  the  national  guard  organized  ?  What 
did  the  emperor  grant  ?  Did  he  stay  in  Vienna  ?  When  did  the  diet  begin  its. 
sessions  ?     Why  did  the  students  fight  the  soldiers  ? 


299 

soldiers  behind  them.  Supported  by  the  national  guard,  they  pre- 
vailed, and  the  soldiers  were  obliged  to  retreat.  Some  troops  being 
ordered  to  march  against  the  Hungarians,  a  part  of  the  soldiers 
opposed  the  command,  and  other  soldiers  were  called  to  compel 
them  to  obey.  Then  soldiers  were  fighting  in  the  city  against 
soldiers,  citizens  against  citizens.  The  arsenal  was  taken  by  assault, 
the  Minister  of  War  seized  by  the  enraged  multitude  and  hanged. 
Ferdinand,  who  meanwhile  had  returned  to  Vienna,  left  the  city 
again,  and  sent  Jellachich,  the  commander  of  the  Croats,  and 
Prince  Windischgratz  with  an  army  of  100,000  men,  in  order  to  sub- 
due the  revolt  by  force.  The  city  was  bombarded  from  all  sides, 
and  a  Hungarian  army,  which  advanced  for  the  rescue,  dispersed. 
On  the  third  day  of  the  siege  the  city  surrendered  (Oct.  28th). 
Then  Messenhauser,  general  of  the  national  guard,  the  noble- 
minded  Robert  Blum,  member  of  the  German  National  Assembly, 
who  took  part  in  the  combat  as  a  volunteer,  and  others,  were  shot. 
Bem,  general  of  the  garrison,  escaped.  Vienna  was  declared  in  a 
state  of  siege,  and  the  diet  dissolved.  Ferdinand  resigned  his 
crown.  His  successor  was  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph  I.,  who 
almost  entirely  annulled  the  liberal  constitution. 

In  the  other  provinces  of  the  empire  insurrections  also  broke 
out,  the  people  demanding  everywhere  constitutions  in  accordance 
with  the  spirit  of  the  age.  In  Prague  a  parliament  of  all  Slavonians 
assembled,  deliberating  by  what  means  they  could  obtain  political 
liberty.  But  it  was  dissolved  after  Windischgratz  had  overwhelmed 
the  city  in  a  bloody  contest  (June  13  and  14). 

In  Hungary  the  diet  abolished  socage-service,  decreed  equal 
taxation,  and  demanded  a  more  liberal  constitution.  The  emperor 
granted  it,  especially  their  own  ministry.  Kossuth,  the  soul  of 
these  innovations,  became  minister  of  finance.  After  this  the  diet 
resolved  to  unite  Transylvania  with  Hungary.  The  nation  wanted 
to  become  independent  from  Austria.  But  the  Slavonians,  namely, 
Croats,  Serbs,  etc.,  pertaining  to  Hungaria,  opposed  the  undertaking, 
and,  instigated  by  the  Austrian   government,   attacked  the  Hunga- 

Against  whom  should  the  troops  march  ?  What  consequence  did  the  order 
cause?  Who  left  the  city  again ?  Who  was  ordered  to  subdue  it  ?  With  what 
success?  What  was  the  fate  of  Messenhauser  and  Robert  Blum?  What  of 
General  Bem?  What  of  Vienna  and  the  diet?  Who  succeeded  Ferdinand? 
What  did  his  successor  annul  ?  What  of  the  other  provinces  .'•  Of  Prague  ? 
What  did  the  diet  in  Hungary  abolish?  Who  became  minister  of  finance? 
Who  opposed  the  resolution  of  the  diet  to  allow  Hungary  to  become  independ- 
ent from  Austria  ? 


300 

rians,  Jellachich  being  their  commander.  A  great  Austrian  army 
supported  them  (1849  A.  D.)  The  Hungarians  did  not  despair. 
Arms  and  ammunition  were  wanting,  and  their  regular  troops  were 
still  in  Italy,  fighting  the  battles  of  Austria.  Manufactories  of  pow- 
der and  arms  arose  as  if  by  magic,  and  in  every  town  the  anvils 
rang  with  the  clang  of  the  arms  which  the  artisans  forged  by  day 
and  by  night.  The  peasantry,  whom  the  constitution  had  elevated 
from  the  condition  of  serfs  to  that  of  freemen,  rose  en  masse.  All 
Hungarians  were  fighting  with  heroic  courage.  Gorgey,  Bern, 
Dembinsky,  Klapka,  and  other  able  generals,  were  at  the  head  of 
their  troops.  Bem  fought  in  Transylvania  with  such  good  success 
that  the  Russians  had  to  be  called;  but  he  repelled  them.  In 
Hungary  Dembinsky  and  other  generals  won  several  glorious  victo- 
ries, and  the  Austrian  armies  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country. 
The  diet,  declaring  that  the  crown  of  Hungary  was  settled  by  stat- 
ute on  the  direct  heirs  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  and  moreover, 
that  Francis  Joseph  had  not  taken  the  requisite  oath  to  preserve 
inviolate  the  constitution,  laws  and  liberties  of  the  Hungarians,  but 
demanded  their  unconditional  submission,  denied  his  right  to  rule 
over  their  nation,  and  proclaimed  the  country  to  be  a  republic 
(April,  1849).  Kossuth  became  its  governor.  Now  the  emperor 
begged  Russia  for  help,  which  was  granted  without  delay.  Paske-  ■ 
witsch  was  commander  of  the  Russian  troops,  and  the  cruel  Hay- 
nau,  called  "  Hungary's  hangman,"  commander-in-chief  of  both 
armies.  Though  the  power  of  the  allied  armies  was  far  superior  to 
that  of  the  Hungarians,  the  latter  were  not  discouraged,  continuing 
the  contest  with  increased  exertion.  The  cholera  became  their  ally, 
destroying,  together  with  other  diseases,  thousands  of  the  enemies. 
But  Gorgey,  jealous  of  Kossuth's  power,  surrendered,  immediately 
after  having  been  nominated  dictator,  to  the  Russians  at  Villagos 
with  30,000  men  and  140  cannons  (Aug.  13,  1849).  The  public 
voice  of  his  nation  accused  him  of  treachery.  Hungary  and  Tran- 
sylvania were  again  overpowered  by  Austria;  only  Comorn  Avas 
still  bravely  defended  by  Klapka;  he  surrendered  the  fortress  only 

Who  supported  Jellachich  ?  Describe  the  efforts  of  the  Hungarians.  Who 
rose  en  masse  ?  What  generals  were  at  the  head  of  iheir  armies  ?  With  what 
success  did  Bem  fight  against  the  Russians  ?  What  of  Dembinsky  ?  Of  the 
Austrian  armies  ?  Why  did  the  diet  deny  the  right  of  the  emperor  to  rule  in 
Hungary?  What  did  they  proclaim  ?  Who  became  governor  ?  For  whose  help 
did  the  emperor  beg  ?  Who  was  general-in-chief  ?  How  did  the  Hungarians 
contest?  Who  was  their  ally  ?  Who  became  dictator?  How  did  he  act?  Of 
what  was  he  accused  ?     What  of  Klapka  ? 


301 

after  having  obtained  favorable  conditions  for  the  garrison.  The 
fate  the  vanquished  ones  had  to  suffer  was  terrible.  On  the  6th  of 
October  (1849  A.  D.),  a  day  rendered  forever  memorable  for  infamy 
in  the  annals  of  Austria,  thirteen  generals  and  staff  officers  who  had 
surrendered,  were  shot  or  hanged  at  Arad.  Many  ministers  and 
other  civil  officials  were  also  executed.  An  immense  number  of 
inferior  officers  were  sent  to  fortresses  to  be  imprisoned,  and  about 
70,000,  who  had  taken  part  in  the  contest,  were  forcibly  enlisted  in 
Austrian  regiments.  Kossuth  and  many  others  went  to  Turkey, 
and  from  there  emigrated  to  America,  where  they  found  an  asylum 
and  kind  support. 

g  126.     Italy.     Revolutions  of  the  Italian   States.     War  of 

Austria  Against  Sardinia  and  France.     Battles 

at  Magenta  and    Solferino.     United 

Kingdom  of  Italy.     Garibaldi. 

In  the  kingdoms  of  Lombardy  and  Venice  the  people  were  op- 
pressed by  heavy  taxes.  They  also  hated  the  government  be- 
cause it  was  administered  by  foreigners.  Some  sentinels  in  Milan 
were  killed  through  vengeance.  When  General  Radetzky  pro- 
claimed martial  law,  the  wrath  increased,  and  after  the  report  of  the 
French  revolution,  broke  out  in  a  revolt  (March,  1848),  by  which 
the  Austrians  were  compelled  to  withdraw  from  the  city.  The 
entire  Lombardy  rose  in  open  insurrection  and  joined  Sardinia,  its 
king,  Charles  Albert,  advancing  to  support  the  people.  The  pope 
and  the  king  of  Naples  also  afforded  them  aid.  But  the  Austrians 
disarmed  the  Romans ;  the  king  of  Naples  recalled  his  troops,  and 
Charles  Albert  remamed  inactive.  Radetzky  gained  a  complete 
victory  at  Custozza,  and  soon  after  entered  Milan.  The  land  had 
again  to  submit  to  Austria.  Charles  once  more  tried  the  chance  of 
arms,  but  was  again  vanquished,  the  campaign  having  lasted  only 
four  days.  He  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel,  and 
went  to  Portugal,  where  he  died.  Venice,  which  had  proclaimed 
the  "republic  of  St.  Mark,"  also  had  to  surrender  to  Marshal 
Radetzky. 

What  fate  did  the  vanquished  suffer  ?  What  of  the  executions  at  Arad  ? 
What  of  inferior  officers  ?  How  many  were  enlisted  in  Austrian  regiments  ? 
Where  did  Kossuth  goto?  How  was  he  received  in  America?  |  126.  Why 
did  the  inhabitants  of  Lombardy  and  Venice  hate  the  Austrian  government? 
What  incidents  caused  the  revolt?  What  was  the  effect  of  the  example  of  the 
capital  throughout  the  country?  Who  supported  her?  Was  the  success  endur- 
ing ?     Why  not  ?     What  of  Radetzky  ?     Of  Charles  Albert  ?     Of  Venice  ? 


302 

Insurrections,  at  the  beginning  of  1848,  also  occurred  in  the 
oth&r  States  of  Italy ;  the  constitutions  were  amended ;  the  Jesuits 
everywhere  removed;  in  Piedmont,  besides,  liberty  of  conscience  was 
granted.  Pope  Pious  IX.,  known  for  his  liberal  principles,  proposed 
the  plan  of  framing  a  confederation  of  the  Italian  States,  and  first 
effected  several  beneficial  reforms;  e.g.,  Hberty  of  the  press;  but 
soon  committed  acts  of  a  reactionary  nature.  After  a  while  he  lost 
the  confidence  of  the  Romans,  who  compelled  him  to  flee  and 
elected  a  National  Assembly,  which  declared  that  the  pope's  tem- 
poral power  was  at  an  end,  and  framed  a  republican  constitution. 
Mazzini,  the  chief  of  the  "young  Italy,"  and  Garibaldi,  a  bold 
leader  of  a  corps  of  volunteers,  were  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment. But  at  the  request  of  the  pope,  Austrian,  Spanish,  Neapol- 
itan and  French  troops  soon  drew  near ;  the  French — to  the  shame 
of  their  repubhc — besieged  Rome,  took  it  by  assault  (1849  ^'  I^-)' 
and  reinstated  the  pope,  who  since  was  the  most  determined  sup- 
porter of  absolutism.  The  king  of  Naples  suppressed  the  insurrec- 
tions in  Naples  and  Sicily  (1848  A.  D.),  principally  by  aid  of  his 
Swiss  guards,  and  then  governed  again  with  unlimited  sway. 

The  influence  of  Austria  again  became  preponderant  in  Italy. 
She  possessed  the  Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom,  and  all  the  secular 
princes  of  the  peninsula  were  either  Austrian  archdukes,  or  faith- 
ful allies  of  Austria,  excepting  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  king  of  Sardinia. 
The  latter,  trusting  in  the  assistance  of  Napoleon  III.,  and  in  his 
liberal  minister,  Cavour,  resolved  to  ruin  the  Austrian  power  in 
Italy.  For  some  time  he  had  been  constantly  arming  for  this 
object;  the  emperor  of  Austria  demanded  the  cessation  of  these 
preparations,  and  his  reclamations  being  unheeded,  ordered  his 
army  to  invade  the  Sardinian  territory  (1859  A.  D.)  Napoleon 
joined  his  army  to  that  of  the  king,  and  placed  himself  at  its  head 
to  direct  the  operations  of  the  campaign.  Then  began  a  short  but 
bloody  war.  The  Austrians  were  defeated  in  two  battles,  at  Magenta 
(June  4,  1859),  and  near  Solferino  (June  24th).     The  latter  battle 

Of  the  other  States  of  Italy?  Of  the  reforms  of  Pius  IX.?  Why. did  he 
lose  the  confidence  of  the  Romans  ?  What  was  he  compelled  to  do  ?  What  did 
the  Romans  frame  ?  Who  was  at  the  head  of  the  government  ?  Who  abolished 
it  ?  Who  reinstated  the  pope  ?  What  of  the  king  of  Naples  ?  Who  resolved  to 
ruin  the  power  of  Austria  in  Italy  ?  Trusting  in  whom  ?  What  did  he  do  for 
this  object?  What  did  the  emperor  of  Austria  demand?  What  did  he  order 
his  army  to  do  ?  What  of  Louis  Napoleon  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  war;  of 
the  battle  at  Solferino. 


303 

lasted  from  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  till  eight  in  the  evening. 
At  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  a  hurricane  swept  over  the  two 
armies,  compelling  them  to  suspend  their  bloody  work,  but  the 
storm  was  hardly  over,  when  the  contest  re-commenced  with  the 
same  fury.  At  length  the  Austrians,  who  had  entered  the  conflict 
with  220,000  men,  were  obHged  to  retreat.  Napoleon  offered  a 
truce  which  was  accepted,  and  after  this  the  two  emperors  concluded 
peace,  according  to  the  terms  of  which  the  king  of  Sardinia  obtained 
the  Lombardy,  and  Napoleon,  Savoy  and  the  country  of  Nice. 

But  these  were  not  the  only  results  of  the  Italian  war.  The 
Austrian  garrison  had  no  sooner  withdrawn  from  the  papal  territory 
than  the  Italian  revolutionists  proclaimed  Victor  Emmanuel  dictator, 
who  united  to  his  kingdom  the  greater  part  of  the  papal  dominions, 
the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Modena,  and  the  grand-duchy  of  Tus- 
cany (i860  A.  D.)  The  appeals  of  Pius  IX.  to  the  Catholic  powers 
were  unheeded.  The  revolution  continued  its  progress  over  other 
parts  of  Italy.  Garibaldi,  secretly  assisted  by  England,  landed  in 
Sicily  with  2,000  volunteers,  and  caused  a  revolt,  which  had  just 
broken  out  in  this  island,  to  end  in  triumph.  This  being  accom- 
plished, he  re-crossed  the  sea  to  expel  Francis  II.,  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  from  his  continental  possessions.  Without  striking  a  blow, 
he  entered  Naples  (Sept.  7,  i860).  Then  the  army  of  Vic!: tor  Emman- 
uel hastened  to  his  assistance,  Francis  left  his  kingdom,  and  the 
first  Italian  parliament,  composed  of  deputies  from  all  Italy  (except 
Venetia  and  what  remained  of  the  States  of  the  church),  assembled 
at  Turin,  and  proclaimed  Victor  Emmanuel  king  of  Italy  (1861  A.  D.) 
Florence,  later  Rome  (1870  A.  D.)  became  the  capital  of  the  new 
government.  The  beneficial  influence  of  the  poHtical  reforms  have 
since  appeared  in  the  public  affairs  of  the  nation.  Twenty  years 
ago  eighty  Italians  in  every  hundred  were  unable  to  read  or  write. 
Now  nearly  one  million  sterHng  is  expended  for  public  instruction. 
The  monasteries,  in  which  30,000  idle  monks  were  fed,  were  abol- 
ished, and  the  greater  part  of  their  revenues  devoted  to  general 
education.     The  industrial  progress  of  free  Italy  has  also  been  rapid. 

Who  had  to  retreat  ?  What  did  Victor  Emmanuel  gain  ?  What  Napoleon  ? 
What  other  States  did  the  former  unite  to  his  kingdom  ?  Where  did  Garibaldi 
land  ?  What  did  he  efifect  in  Sicily  and  Naples  ?  Who  hastened  to  his  assist- 
ance ?  Where  did  the  hrst  parliament  assemble  ?  Who  was  proclaimed  king  of 
Italy  ?  Which  was  the  capital  ?  What  beneficial  results  did  the  political  re- 
forms exert  in  Italy  ?  What  of  public  instruction  ?  Of  the  monasteries  ?  Of 
industrial  progress  ? 


304 

Her  exports,  which  formerly  (1868  A.  D.)  were  only  twenty-two 
million  sterling,  had  risen  in  seven  years  (1875  A.  D.)  to  forty-two 
million.  While  Italy  advanced  in  common  with  the  progress  of 
the  age,  the  pope  alone  remained  conservative.  At  his  call,  an 
ecumenical  council  convened  in  Rome  which,  according  to  his 
wish,  declared  him  infallible  in  matters  of  faith  (1869  A.  D.) 

§  127.      Russia.      Crimean   War.      Siege  of   Sebastopol. 

Russo-Turkish  War.     Surrender  of  the 

Turks  at  the  Shipka  Pass. 

The  Russian  czar,  Nicholas,  ill  concealing  his  ambition  under 
the  plea  of  protecting  the  Greek  subjects  of  the  Ottoman  empire, 
declared  war  against  the  Turks,  and  invaded  the  Danubian  prov- 
inces of  the  Turkish  territory.  The  great  powers  in  Europe, 
desiring  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  Turkey  for  the  perservation  of 
the  European  equilibrium,  oft'ered  mediation;  but  their  efforts  not 
having  succeeded,  England,  Sardinia  and  France  (under  Napoleon 
III.),  allied  with  the  Sultan  and  began  war  against  Russia  (1854 
A.  D.)  They  resolved  to  take  possession  of  Sebastopol,  which  was 
the  seat  of  the  Russian  power  in  the  Crimean  peninsula.  Terrible 
was  the  attack  by  land  and  by  sea ;  equally  terrible  was  the  defense. 
The  czar  sent  thither  constant  reinforcements ;  the  western  powers 
did  the  same.  The  siege  had  lasted  one  year,  when  the  latter  fixed 
on  the  8th  of  September,  1855,  for  a  general  assault.  They  opened 
it  by  a  formidable  bombardment,  which  was  continued  for  four  days 
and  four  nights;  then  they,  with  astonishing  courage,  stormed  the 
defenses  of  the  enemy.  Yet  it  was  not  till  after  six  assaults  had 
been  made,  that  the  French  succeeded  in  taking  the  Malakoff 
Tower,  which  was  the  principal  defense  of  Sebastopol.  Before 
retiring.  Prince  Gortschakoff,  the  Russian  commander,  completed 
the  sinking  of  his  fleet,  and  blew  up  that  part  of  the  town  which  he 
was  compelled  to  abandon ;  then  he  intrenched  himself  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  Sebastopol,  where  he  continued  for  some  time  to  make 
a  desperate  resistance,  but  finally  he  retreated.  Sebastopol  by  this 
time  had  become  a  heap  of  ruins.  Then  the  Treaty  of  Paris  fol- 
lowed (March  30,  1856),  by  which  the  Sultan  confirmed  the  ancient 

How  did  the  exports  improve  ?  Did  the  pope  also  advance  with  the  progress 
of  the  age?  What  of  the  synod  held  in  Rome?  §127.  Against  whom  did 
Nicholas  of  Russia  declare  war  ?  Who  allied  with  the  Sultan  ?  What  city  did 
the  allies  besiege  ?  How  long  did  the  siege  last  ?  Give  a  description  of  it,  and 
of  the  storming  of  the  city.  Mention  some  conditions  of  the  peace.  Whose  privi- 
leges were  confirmed  by  the  Sultan  ? 


305 

privileges  of  his  Christian  subjects;  Russia  renounced  all  protec- 
torate rights  over  the  Danubian  provinces ;  the  navigation  of  the 
Danube  was  declared  free;  the  Black  Sea,  of  which  Russia  had 
been  the  sole  mistress,  became  neutral,  and  was  interdicted  to  any 
vessel  of  war. 

The  first  great  reform  of  Alexander  II.,  who  had  signed  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  was  the  aboHshment  of  serfdom,  which  created  four- 
teen millions  of  new,  free  citizens,  the  mainstay  of  Russia's  agricul- 
ture. Corporal  punishment  was  also  abolished ;  the  judicial  power 
separated  from  the  administrative,  and  founded  on  trial  by  jury ; 
the  term  of  military  service  lessened,  and  liberty  of  the  press  and 
publications  enlarged.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  he  suppressed  the  in- 
surrection in  Poland  (1863- 1864  A.  D.)  with  extreme  severity.  True, 
the  Russian  peasant  can  no  longer  be  beaten  or  sold  by  a  master, 
but  his  attitude  to  the  great  lord  of  his  district  is  still  utterly  slavish. 
Of  the  schoolmaster  he  knows  nothing. — In  point  of  extent  Russia 
is  the  largest  dominion  in  the  world.  The  subjects  of  the  czar 
number  85,000,000.  He  is,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word,  an 
absolute  monarch.  All  power — legislative,  executive,  judicial  and 
ecclesiastical — centers  in  him.     He  is  the  law  of  Russia. 

The  oppression  of  the  Turkish  subjects  in  Bosnia,  Herzegovina 
and  Bulgaria  urged  these  provinces  to  rise  against  the  sultan  (1875- 
1876  A.  D.)  Bulgaria  was  now  the  scene  of  atrocities  scarcely  par- 
alleled in  modern  Europe.  Christian  villages  were  burned  down 
and  their  inhabitants  slaughtered  by  thousands.  Women,  little 
children  and  unoffending  old  men  perished  under  nameless  tor- 
tures. A  vain  attempt  was  made,  by  a  conference  of  the  great 
powers,  to  bring  the  stubborn  sultan  to  reason ;  he  would  not 
yield  to  counsel.  Russia  then  declared  war,  sending  her  armies 
over  the  Balkans,,  where  they  occupied  the  Shipka  Pass  (1877 
A.  D.)  But  they  were  driven  back,  and  Osman  Pasha  led  an 
army  to    Plevna,  a  Roumanian  town.     For  five  months  the  con- 

What  protectorate  did  Russia  renounce  ?  What  of  the  navigation  of  the  Danube 
and  of  the  Black  Sea?  What  reforms  did  Alexander  II.  accomplish  in  Russia? 
How  many  peasants  did  he  set  free  ?  What  punishment  did  he  abrogate  ? 
What  of  judicial  power?  Of  trial  by  jury  ?  Of  military  service?  Of  liberty 
of  the  press  ?  How  did  he  deal  with  Poland  ?  Is  the  Russian  peasant  indeed 
free  ?  How  many  subjects  are  under  the  dominion  of  the  czar  ?  Why  is  he 
called  the  most  absolute  monarch?  How  were  the  Turkish  subjects  in  Bul- 
garia, etc.,  treated  ?  Delineate  their  treatment.  To  whose  counsel  would  the 
sultan  not  yield  ?  Who  waged  war  against  him  ?  What  of  Plevna  ? 
(20) 


306 

test  centered  in  this  little  town.  Todleben,  the  Russian  general, 
drew  heavy  masses  of  troops  around  it,  and  starved  the  enemies. 
Osman  endured  the  siege  till  Plevna  was  a  charnel-house,  then 
endeavored  to  break  through  the  encircling  lines;  but  over- 
matched and  surrounded,  he  had  to  lay  down  his  arms.  The 
flower  of  the  Turkish  army  was  lost.  A  few  weeks  after  the  fall  of 
Plevna  three  Russian  armies  were  led  across  the  Balkans  (1878  A. 
D.)  The  difficulty  of  the  march  was  extreme.  The  roads  were 
slippery  with  ice,  often  almost  impassable  on  account  of  deep  snow. 
Many  men  perished  from  intense  cold.  Still  the  Russians  made 
their  way  into  RumeHa,  and  striking  the  rear  of  the  Turkish  army 
which  guarded  the  outlet  from  the  Shipka  Pass,  compelled  its  sur- 
render. Twenty  thousand  men  laid  down  their  arms.  The  victo- 
rious Russians  advanced  quickly  to  Adrianople,  and  the  sultan 
begged  for  terms  of  peace,  which  he  was  granted  on  these  condi- 
tions: To  the  north  of  the  Balkans,  Bulgaria  was  raised  into  a 
principality,  paying  a  tribute ;  to  the  south  of  them,  the  province 
of  Eastern  Rumelia  was  formed,  to  be  ruled  by  a  Christian  governor- 
general  ;  and  Montenegro,  Roumania  and  Servia  received  their  inde- 
pendence. Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  made  over  to  Austria. 
Russia  took  back  Bessarabia,  and  received  also  some  Turkish  cities 
in  Asia. — The  treaty  was  submitted  by  Russia  to  the  congress  of  the 
European  powers,  held  in  Berlin,  Prince  Bismarck  presiding  (1878 
A.  D.)  The  sultan  lost  over  four  million  subjects  by  this  war. — 
Alexander  I.  was  assassmated  by  the  Nihilists  (1881  A.  D.) 

^  128.     America.     Secession    War  in    the   United   States. 
Abraham  Lincoln. 

When  two  new  territories  were  organized  in  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska, the  congress  resolved  that  these  territories  were  to  decide  for 
themselves  whether  they  would  have  slaves  or  not.  This  law  led  to 
civil  war  in  Kansas.     The  slavery  question  had  already  divided  the 

How  long  did  the  contest  last  in  the  town  ?  Who  were  the  leaders  of  the 
two  armies?  Who  was  successful?  What  loss  did  Osman  suffer?  Describe 
the  difficulties  of  the  march  of  the  Russian  armies  across  the  Balkans.  How 
many  Turks  surrendered  ?  How  far  did  the  Russians  advance  ?  Mention  some 
conditions  of  the  peace.  To  what  congress  was  the  treaty  submitted  ?  How  many 
subjects  did  the  sultan  lose  by  this  war  ?  What  of  the  end  of  Alexander  I.  ? 
^  128.  What  did  congress  leave  to  the  settlers  to  decide  in  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  ?  What  followed  this  law  ?  When  had  the  slavery  question  already 
divided  the  nation  ? 


307 

nation  when  the  constitution  was  framed,  and  finally  caused  one  of 
the  bloodiest  civil  wars.  In  the  Declaration  of  Independence  the 
principles  were  proclaimed  that  "  all  men  are  created  equal ;  that 
they  are  endowed  by  their  creator  with  certain  inalienable  rights, 
and  that  among  these  are  Hfe,  Hberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness." 
According  to  these  principles  the  Anti-Slavery  Society  was  organ- 
ized (1S33  A.  D.),  which  held  that  all  slave  laws,  before  God,  were 
utterly  null  and  void.  W.  Lloyd  Garrison  and  Wendell  Phillips 
presided  over  the  society.  The  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise 
(see  §  n6)  caused  the  formation  of  a  new  party,  called  the  Repub- 
lican party,  the  principal  doctrine  of  which  was  opposition  to  the 
extension  of  slavery.  John  Brown,  an  enthusiastic  enemy  of 
slavery,  who  had  taken  an  active  part  in  the  warfare  in  Kansas, 
formed  the  plan  to  liberate  the  Southern  slaves.  With  but  twenty- 
one  followers  he  seized  the  United  States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry, 
Virginia  (1859  A.  D.)  He  was  seized,  together  with  six  of  his 
associates.  They  were  tried  and  hanged. — The  Republicans  elected 
Abraham  Lincoln  president  (i860  A.  D.)  The  seven  slave-holding 
States — South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Louisiana  and  Texas,  which  were  soon  joined  by  the  States  of  Vir- 
ginia, Arkansas,  North  CaroHna  and  Tennessee,  formed  themselves 
into  a  separate  confederacy,  asserting  that  they  had  a  perfect  right 
to  withdraw  at  pleasure  from  the  Union,  and  elected  Jefferson 
Davis  president  and  Alexander  Stephens  vice-president.  South 
Carolina  headed  the  secession.  The  confederates,  moreover,  seized 
most  of  the  forts  and  arsenals  of  the  United  States  within  their 
boundaries.  Major  Anderson,  having  refused  to  deHver  up  Fort 
Sumter,  in  Charleston  harbor,  was  attacked  by  the  confederate  bat- 
teries under  the  command  of  Gen.  Beauregard  (April  12th,  186 1), 
and  surrendered  after  a  day's  fighting.  At  this  signal  of  war 
the  president  issued  a  proclamation  ordering  75,000  men  into  the 
field  for  the  defense  of  the  Union  (April  14th).     A  large  army  was 

What  did  it  cause  ?  What  principles  are  proclaimed  in  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  ?  What  society  was  organized  according  to  these  principles  ? 
Who  presided  over  the  society  ?  What  repeal  caused  the  formation  of  the  Re- 
publican party  ?  What  was  the  principal  doctrine  of  this  party  ?  Give  an  account 
of  John  Brown's  attempt  to  liberate  the  slaves.  Whom  did  the  Republicans 
elect  president  ?  What  States  formed  a  separate  confederacy?  What  did  they 
assert  ?  Whom  did  they  elect  president  ?  Whom  vice-president  ?  W' hat  State 
headed  the  secession  ?  What  did  the  confederates  seize?  Who  defended  Fort 
Sumter  ?  To  whom  did  Anderson  surrender  ?  What  proclamation  did  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  issue  ?     When  ? 


collected  around  Washington,  under  the  veteran  Gen.  Scott.  The 
first  bloodshed  occurred  in  Baltimore  (April  19),  when  a  mob  attacked 
a  body  of  troops  passing  through  that  city  to  the  defense  of  Wash- 
ington, and  killed  two  Massachusetts  men. 

In  July,  Gen.  McDowell,  having  command  of  the  federal 
force  assembled  around  Washmgton,  began  to  march  upon  Rich- 
mond, which  had  lately  become  the  capital  of  the  confederates. 
He  soon  encountered  a  portion  of  the  confederate  troops,  under 
the  command  of  Gen.  Beauregard,  at  a  little  creek  named  Bull 
Run.  First  the  Union  soldiers  were  victorious,  but,  in  the  after- 
noon, the  confederates,  reinforced  by  J.  E.  Johnston's  column  from 
the  Shenandoah  valley,  defeated  them  (July  21).  Congress  imme- 
diately levied  an  army  of  volunteers  which,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1862,  exceeded  450,000  men.  Two  hundred  thousand  of 
them  were  near  Washington,  under  Gen.  McClellan,  Gen.  Scott 
having  retired.  Gen.  Halleck  was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Western  department.  The  confederate  congress  passed  an  act 
of  conscription,  which  declared  every  male  inhabitant  (with  a 
few  exceptions)  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  thirty-five  years,  a 
soldier.  In  the  fall  of  1861  (October  21)  Gen.  Banks  tried  to 
effect  a  passage  of  federal  troops  across  the  Potomac  river  at 
Ball's  Bluff,  but  the  affair  was  a  failure.  Gen.  Nathaniel  Lyon, 
in  Missouri,  really  saved  the  State  by  securing  the  arsenal  at  St. 
Louis  (in  May,  1861);  he  fell  when  he  attacked  the  rebels  at  Wil- 
son's Creek  (August  loth).  Col.  Sigel  won  a  battle  at  Carthage, 
Missouri  (July  5th),  but  was  compelled  to  fall  back.  Mason  and 
Slidell,  two  confederate  commissioners  to  the  British  government, 
were  seized  by  Capt.  Wilkes  from  an  English  mail-steamer  and 
carried  to  Fort  Warren  (November  8th).  The  British  government 
demanded  their  surrender,  beginning  preparations  for  war.  But  war 
was  avoided,  as  the  United  States  government  gave  them  up. 

Towards  the  middle  of  March,  1862,  Gen.  McClellan,  now 
commander  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  landed  it  at  Fortress  Mon- 

What  was  collected  at  Washington  ?  Under  whose  command  ?  Where  was 
the  first  bloodshed  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  battle  at  Bull  Run.  Who  com- 
manded the  Union  army  ?  Who  the  confederates  ?  What  of  Johnston's 
column?  How  many  volunteers  did  congress  levy?  What  act  did  the  confed- 
erate congress  pass  ?  What  encounter  had  Gen.  Banks  with  the  rebels  in  the 
fallof  1861?  How  did  he  succeed?  What  general  saved  Missouri?  Where 
did  he  die  ?  Give  a  detail  of  the  peninsula  campaign.  Who  was  commander  of 
the  Union  army? 


309 

roe  and  began  to  advance  from  that  point  towards  Richmond. 
The  confederate  works  before  Yorktown  resisted  his  march,  and, 
after  one  month,  Gen.  Johnston  evacuated  the  place.  In  spite  of 
new  obstacles,  McClellan  approached  within  a  few  miles  of  Rich- 
mond. But  the  enemy  had  by  this  time  received  large  reinforce- 
ments, while  his  own  army  had  been  greatly  reduced  by  losses 
during  the  campaign,  and  by  sickness  on  the  banks  of  the  Chicka- 
hominy.  Seeing  himself  pressed  by  superior  numbers,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat.  For  six  days  the  confederates  harassed  his  march 
by  continual  attacks,  known  as  the  "  seven  days'  battles  "  (from 
June  25  to  July  i);  but  the  successful  stand  which  he  made  at 
Malvern  Hill  (July  i),  checked  all  further  aggressive  demonstra- 
tions against  him,  and  ended  the  peninsular  campaign.  The  presi- 
dent now  called  for  600,000  troops,  and  soon  after  ordered  that 
300,000  of  these  should  be  raised  by  draft,  to  serve  for  nine  months. 
Gen.  Halleck  became  commander-in-chief. 

The  success  of  the  confederate  government  in  that  campaign 
induced  them  to  invade  the  Union  territory,  in  order  to  strike  some 
important  blow.  In  vain  did  Gen.  Pope  oppose  the  invading  army, 
under  Gen.  Lee ;  he  was  compelled  to  retreat,  and  was  severely 
defeated  at  the  second  battle  at  Bull  Run  (August  30).  McClellan, 
now  recalled  from  Virginia,  advanced  with  all  the  forces  that  were 
not  required  for  the  defense  of  Washington,  to  stojj  the  overwhelm- 
ing march  of  the  confederates.  He  met  them  at  the  great  battle  at 
Antietam,  in  Maryland.  Each  army  numbered,  it  is  said,  a  hun- 
dred thousand  men  (September  17).  The  combat  raged  all  day, 
till  night  put  an  end  to  it.  McClellan  obtained  a  decided  success, 
and  Gen.  Lee  hastily  withdrew  his  forces  across  the  Potomac,  retir- 
ing into  Virginia.  The  Union  army  did  nothing  till  November; 
then  McClellan  was  ordered  to  deliver  up  the  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  to  Gen.  Ambrose  Burnside,  who  immediately 
took  measures  for  a  new  advance  upon  Richmond.  The  march  to 
that   city  was    to  be  made  by  the  route  through    Fredericksburg. 

To  what  city  did  he  advance  ?  By  what  causes  was  he  compelled  to  retreat  ? 
Where  did  he  make  a  successful  stand  ?  For  how  many  more  troops  did  the 
president  call  ?  How  many  should  be  raised  by  draft  ?  For  how  many  months  ? 
"Who  became  commander-in-chief?  Who  invaded  the  Union  territory?  Who 
was  defeated  in  the  second  battle  at  Bull  Run  ?  In  what  battle  did  McClellan 
meet  the  confederates  ?  How  many  men  did  the  armies  number  ?  Who  was 
defeated?  Who  succeeded  McClellan  in  the  command?  By  what  route  did 
Gen.  Burnside  intend  to  advance  to  Richmond  ? 


310 

Lee  occupied  the  town  with  a  part  of  his  forces,  and  concentrated 
the  rest  on  the  heights  in  the  rear  of  the  town.  When  the  Union 
army  attacked  it,  no  greater  opposition  was  made  than  was  suffi- 
cient to  allure  the  Union  soldiers  to  push  forward.  But  as  soon  as 
the  Union  army  tried  to  storm  the  enemy's  works  on  the  heights,  it 
was  received  with  such  a  fire  of  infantry  and  artillery  that  Gen. 
Burnside  gave  up  the  attack  (December  13). 

During  this  year  (1862  A.  D.)  military  movements  m  the  west 
were  numerous  and  important.  In  January,  Gen.  Thomas  won  a 
brilliant  victory  at  Mill  Springs,  where  the  rebel  Gen.  Zollicoffer 
was  killed.  In  February  Gen.  Grant,  aided  by  Commodore  Foote 
with  his  gun-boats,  captured  Fort  Henry,  on  the  Tennessee  river, 
and  Fort  Donelson,  on  the  Cumberland — the  latter  place  with  13,000 
men.  These  federal  successes  obhged  the  rebels  to  withdraw  from 
Kentucky.  Within  two  months  of  this  brilliant  affair,  while  Grant's 
army  lay  encamped  at  Pittsburg  Landing  (Shiloh),  awaiting  a  federal 
corps  under  Gen.  Buell,  Generals  Beauregard  and  A.  S.  Johnston 
attacked  Grant,  rendering  themselves  master  of  a  part  of  his  camp. 
But  Johnston  was  killed  in  the  contest,  and  during  the  afternoon 
Buell's  army  came  up,  so  that  the  confederates,  on  the  next  day, 
were  compelled  to  give  way  and  retreat  (April  6-7).  The  rebels 
retreated  to  Corinth,  Miss.,  where  they  were  besieged  by  Gen. 
Halleck ;  after  severe  fighting,  they  evacuated  the  place.  When 
Gen.  Halleck  was  made  general-in-chief.  Gen.  Grant  took  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee.  Gen.  Price  made  a  vigorous 
attempt  to  drive  him  from  Corinth,  but  was  defeated  by  Gen.  Rose- 
crans  in  the  battle  of  luka.  At  Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas,  the  confed- 
erates were  defeated  by  Generals  Curtis  and  Sigel  after  three  days' 
fighting  (March  8th);  Columbus,  Kentucky,  was  abandoned  early  in 
the  year  by  the  rebels,  who  then  fortified  Island  No.  10,  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Gen.  Pope  co-operated  with  Commodore  Foote  for  its 
capture.  After  twenty-three  days'  bombardment  the  rebels  with- 
drew, but  Pope  cut  off  their  retreat,  taking  many  prisoners.  Flag- 
Where  was  he  vanquished  ?  Describe  the  battle.  Where  were  the  forces  of 
Gen.  Lee  concentrated  ?  How  was  the  Union  army  received  on  the  heights  of 
the  town  ?  What  forts  were  taken  by  Grant  and  Foote  ?  With  how  many 
prisoners  ?  From  what  State  were  the  confederates  obliged  to  withdraw  ?  Give 
an  account  of  the  battle  of  Shiloh.  W^here  did  the  rebels  retreat  to  ?  Who  be- 
sieged them?  Who,  after  Halleck,  took  command  of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee? 
Who  defeated  Gen.  Price  ?  Who  defeated  the  confederates  at  Pea  Ridge  ? 
What  town  of  Kentucky  did  they  abandon  ?  What  island  did  they  then  fortify  ? 
Who  captured  it  ? 


311 

officer  David  Farragut  was  sent  to  the  Gulf  in  command  of  a  squad- 
ron, designed  to  co-operate  with  the  land  forces  under  Gen.  Butler 
for  the  capture  of  New  Orleans.  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  PhiHp, 
below  the  city,  having  been  in  vain  bombarded  for  six  days,  Far- 
ragut ran  past  the  forts  with  part  of  his  fleet,  destroyed  the  rebel 
fleet  above,  and  reached  the  city  (April  25th).  The  forts  surrendered 
to  Commander  D.  D.  Porter,  and  Butler  took  command  in  New 
Orleans.  At  the  end  of  the  year  Gen.  Rosecrans  gave  battle  to 
Bragg  at  Murfreesboro  (Stone  River),  in  Tennessee,  and  defeated 
him  (Dec.  31,  1862,  Jan.  i  and  2,  1863);  both  armies  suffered  a 
heavy  loss. 

The  most  important  naval  combat  during  the  year  1862  was 
waged  between  the  Merrimac  and  Monitor,  in  Hampton  Roads. 
The  Merrimac  was  a  confederate  iron-clad  war-vessel,  which 
destroyed  a  sloop-of- war  and  a  frigate  of  the  Union  (the  Cumberland 
and  the  Congress).  But  during  the  night  the  Monitor,  a  peculiar 
iron-clad  war-ship,  constructed  by  Captain  Ericsson,  arrived  from 
New  York,  and  in  the  morning  attacked  the  Merrimac,  which,  after 
a  fierce  fight,  was  badly  damaged  and  compelled  to  retire  to  Norfolk. 
During  this  year  immense  havoc  was  committed  on  the  commerce 
of  the  North  by  the  Florida  and  Alabama,  two  privateers  built  m 
England,  which  were  permitted  by  the  British  government  to  pass 
into  the  service  of  the  confederates.  The  latter,  commanded  by 
Captain  Semmes,  was  two  years  after  attacked  and  sunk  by  the 
Kearsarge,  Captain  Winslow,  in  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg,  France.' 
After  the  war,  America  called  upon  England  to  indemnify  her  for  the 
loss  suffered  from  these  cruisers.  Commissioners  of  arbitration 
were  chosen,  to  whom  America  submitted  her  claims.  The  judges 
ordained  that  England  should  pay  three  million  sterling  as  a  suitable 
indemnity  for  the  evil  which  she  had  wrongfully  permitted. — West 
Virginia  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1862. 

Who  was  sent  to  capture  New  Orleans  ?  What  forts  did  Farragut  bombard  ? 
Give  an  account  of  the  naval  battle  on  the  Mississippi.  To  whom  did  the  forts 
surrender  ?  Who  took  command  in  New  Orleans  ?  Who  fought  the  battle  of 
Murfreesboro  ?  Who  was  defeated  ?  Give  the  details  of  the  naval  combat  be- 
tween the  Merrimac  and  Monitor.  What  kind  of  war- vessels  were  they  ?  What 
cruisers  caused  serious  damage  to  the  commerce  of  the  North  ?  Where  had 
they  been  built  ?  Where  and  by  whom  was  the  Alabama  sunk  ?  How  were  the 
claims  of  Anfierica  against  England  adjusted  after  the  war?  How  much  indem- 
nity did  England  pay  ?     What  new  State  was  admitted  into  the  Union  ? 


312 

I  129.     Continued.     Emancipation  of  the  Slaves.     Battle 

at  Gettysburg.     Surrender  of  Vicksburg 

and  Port  Hudson. 

In  1862,  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia  had  been  abolished 
by  congress,  and  forever  prohibited  in  the  territories  of  the  republic. 
Congress,  induced  to  do  so  by  the  president,   had  also,  in  the  same 
year,  offered  a  fair  compensation  to   the  slave  States  for  the  manu- 
mission of  their  slaves.     But  none  were  wise  enough  to  accept  the 
offer.     Moreover,  the  president    had    warned  them    betime  to  re- 
turn  into    the  Union,  proclaiming  that,  in  case  of  reluctance,  he 
would  declare  their  slaves  free ;  but  they  did  not  heed  this  warning. 
Therefore,  on  New  Year's  day  of  1863,  he  issued  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation  which  declared  free  all  the  slaves  within  the  borders  of 
the  Confederate  States.     Their  number  amounted  to  four  millions. 
Henceforth,    the   freedmen  vigorously  supported  the  cause  of  the 
Union.     Within  six  months  there  were  50,000  colored  troops  in  the 
Union    armies,    within   another  year    150,000,  notwithstanding  the 
rebel  congress  decreed  that  all  white  officers  of  such  troops  should 
suffer  death   if  captured,  and   some  privates  who  were  taken  were 
instandy  shot.     In  March  the  Conscription  Act  became  a  law,  and 
the  preparations  made  to  enforce  it  caused  great  excitement.     In 
New  York  City  the  commencement  of  the  draft  was  followed  by  a 
riot  in  which  a  great  amount  of  property  was  destroyed,  and  many 
persons,  chiefly  negroes,  were  killed.. 

The  next  advance  upon  Richmond  was  undertaken  by  Gen. 
Hooker,  who  had  succeeded  Gen.  Burnside  in  command,  but  he 
was  entirely  defeated  at  Chancellorsville,  Virginia,  with  a  loss  of 
18,000  men  (May  2  and  3,  1863).  The  confederates  lost  their 
brave  and  favorite  general,  Stonewall  Jackson.  After  this  battle, 
Gen.  Lee  marched  through  Maryland  into  Pennsylvania,  and 
concentrated  his  forces  at  Gettysburg.  Here  he  was  met  by  Gen. 
Meade,  who  encamped  his  troops  on  a  hill-slope.     This  action,  the 

g  129.  Where  was  slavery  abolished  in  1862?  Where  prohibited?  What 
did  congress  offer  to  the  slave  States  ?  With  what  effect  ?  What  warning  did 
the  president  proclaim  to  them?  What  proclamation  did  President  Lincoln 
issue  on  the  first  of  January,  1863  ?  What  was  the  number  of  slaves  ?  How 
did  they  prove  their  gratitude  ?  How  many  of  them,  within  six  months,  were  in 
the  Union  army  ?  How  many  within  another  year  ?  What  did  the  rebel  con- 
gress decree  ?  What  did  the  Conscription  Act  cause  ?  Where  did  a  riot  occur  ? 
Who  undertook  the  next  advance  upon  Richmond  ?  How  did  Gen.  Hooker  suc- 
ceed ?     Mention  the  circumstances  of  the  battle  at  Gettysburg. 


313 

greatest  of  the  war,  lasted  three  days  (July  i,  2  and  3).  All  attacks 
of  Gen.  Lee  were  repulsed,  and  he  was  compelled,  after  having  lost 
30,000  men,  to  retreat  into  Virginia  with  the  remnants  of  his  army. 

Two  other  heavy  blows  were  at  the  same  time  inflicted  upon  the 
confederates.  Thus  far  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  river  had 
remained  closed  between  Port  Hudson  (Louisiana)  and  Vicksburg 
(Mississippi).  Gen.  Grant,  with  the  design  of  opening  the  river 
entirely,  undertook  an  expedition  against  Vicksburg.  But  the 
approach  to  this  place  proved  most  difficult,  owing  to  its  position, 
and  the  eftbrts  of  the  enemy,  under  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston,  to  retain 
the  key  of  the  great  river.  A  previous  attempt  to  cut  a  new  chan- 
nel for  the  river,  which  should  leave  Vicksburg  inland,  had  failed, 
as  did  also  another  to  get  in  its  rear  by  the  Yazoo  river.  Gen. 
Grant  now  ran  the  transports  past  the  batteries  during  the  night 
(April  22),  then  marched  the  army  down  the  west  side  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi far  below  Vicksburg,  crossed  it  to  Grand  Gulf,  and  from 
there  advanced  on  the  rear  of  Vicksburg.  During  this  movement 
he  met-  and  defeated  the  confederates  under  Pemberton  in  five 
actions.  The  latter  then  retired  to  his  works  in  Vicksburg,  and 
Grant  laid  siege  to  it,  which  lasted  six  weeks.  The  garrison,  num- 
bering over  30,000  men,  made  a  gallant  defense ;  but  their  provis- 
ions becoming  very  scarce,  and  no  hope  remaining  of  receiving 
relief,  they  surrendered  (July  4).  The  surrender  of  Vicksburg  was 
followed  by  that  of  Port  Hudson.  The  capture  of  these  two 
strongholds  of  the  confederates  opened  the  Mississippi  to  naviga- 
tion and  commerce,  and  broke  up  their  communication  between  the 
States  west  and  east  of  that  river. 

After  the  battle  at  Murfreesboro,  Gen.  Rosecrans  remained  there 
until  June,  when  he  drove  the  confederates,  under  Gen.  Bragg, 
across  the  Cumberland  Mountains  to  Chattanooga,  Ga.,  where  the 
latter  was  reinforced  by  Generals  Longstreet  and  Johnston,  with 
many  paroled   men  from   Vicksburg.     Rosecrans  was  defeated  by 

How  long  did  it  last  ?  How  many  men  did  Gen.  Lee  lose  ?  Where  did  he 
then  retreat  to  ?  What  two  other  blows  were  inflicted  upon  the  confederates  ? 
'  Why  was  the  approach  to  Vicksburg  difficult?  What  previous  attempts  failed? 
Give  the  narrative  of  the  siege  and  capture  of  Vicksburg.  By  what  maneuver 
did  Gen.  Grant  get  into  the  rear  of  Vicksburg  ?  How  many  times  during  his 
movement  did  he  defeat  Pemberton?  Why  did  the  latter  surrender?  With 
how  many  soldiers  ?  What  other  harbor  was  then  captured  ?  What  advantages 
did  the  Union  gain  by  the  capture  of  the  two  places  ?  Where  did  Rosecrans 
drive  Gen.  Bragg  after  the  battle  at  Murfreesboro  ?  By  whom  was  Bragg  rein- 
forced ? 


314 

Bragg  in  the  great  battle  of  Chickamauga,  a  few  miles  south  of 
Chattanooga,  but  Gen.  Thomas,  who  commanded  the  Union  left, 
repulsed  all  attacks  of  the  enemies,  and  fought  so  stubbornly  that 
the  army  was  able  to  retire  and  fortify  itself  in  Chattanooga.  Here 
it  was  shut  up  by  Bragg,  and  nearly  starved  out.  But  Grant,  joined 
by  Sherman,  raised  the  siege  by  a  battle  lasting  three  days  (Nov. 
23-25).  The  confederates  were  attacked  at  Lookout  Mountain 
and  on  Missionary  Ridge,  and  completely  defeated.  At  the  same 
time  Gen.  Burnside  was  struggling  for  the  possession  of  East  Ten- 
nessee, being  besieged  at  Knoxville  by  Longstreet,  who  had  moved 
northward  after  the  battle  of  Chickamauga.  But  Sherman  hastened 
to  his  relief  from  Chattanooga,  and  Longstreet,  raising  the  siege 
(Dec.  3),  rejoined  Lee  in  Virginia.  In  the  same  year  almost  the 
whole  State  of  Arkansas  was  restored  to  the  federal  government. — 
Two  more  marked  exploits  of  the  navy  were  the  capture  of  the 
"  Nashville"  by  the  "  Montauk,"  and  of  the  ram  "  Atlanta"  by  the 
"  Weehawken,"  both  on  the  coast  of  Georgia. 

The  main  campaigns  for  1864  were  to  be  made  by  the  armies  of 
the  Potomac  and  of  Chattanooga.  Grant,  now  made  lieutenant- 
general,  who  superintended  in  person  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
met  the  confederates  in  the  stubborn  and  bloody  combat  of  the 
Wilderness,  which  lasted  about  three  days,  without  decided  victory 
on  either  side  (May  4-6).  He  then  effected  several  flank  move- 
ments which,  after  six  weeks,  brought  him  before  Petersburg,  the 
key  to  the  capital.  The  Union  army,  in  this  movement,  lost  60,000 
men.  Lee  took  his  stand  between  Petersburg  and  Richmond,  occu- 
pying an  extended  line  of  about  thirty  miles.  Grant  then  settled 
down  to  a  long  siege,  in  order  to  "  wear  out "  the  confederates 
(from  June,  1864,  to  April,  1865).  Several  assaults  were  made  on 
Petersburg,  but  repulsed.  A  tremendous  mine  of  powder,  which 
had  been  run  under  one  of  the  confederate  forts  before  the  town, 
was  fired,  carrying  the  earthwork  into  the  air  (July  30).  A  storm- 
Where  did  he  defeat  Rosecrans  ?  What  general  effected  the  safe  retreat  of 
the  latter?  Where  was  Rosecrans  then  shut  up?  Who  relieved  him?  By 
what  battle  ?  How  long  did  it  last  ?  Where  was  Burnside  besieged  ?  Who ' 
hastened  to  his  relief  ?  What  State  was  mostly  restored  to  the  Union  ?  Men- 
tion two  further  exploits  of  the  navy.  What  armies  had  to  rnake  the  main  cam- 
paigns in  1864  ?  Who  was  now  Lieulenant-General  ?  What  of  the  battle  of  the 
Wilderness  ?  How  many  days  did  it  last  ?  What  movements  brought  Grant  be- 
fore Petersburg  ?  How  many  men  were  killed  ?  Where  did  Lee  take  his 
stand  ?  What  operation  did  Grant  resolve  upon  ?  What  of  the  assaults  on 
Petersburg  ?     Of  the  great  mine  of  powder  ? 


315 

ing  column  then  advanced  to  press  through  to  Petersburg,  but  the 
troops  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  At  this  time,  while 
Grant  stopped  before  Petersburg,  Lee  sent  Gen.  Early  with  a  col- 
umn to  threaten  and,  if  possible,  to  capture  Washington.  Early 
advanced  to  the  works  around  the  capital,  but  finding  them  stronger 
than  had  been  expected,  he  returned  to  Virginia.  He  took  with 
him  great  booty  from  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania.  After  this, 
Sheridan,  general  of  the  cavalry,  and  commander  in  the  Shenan- 
doah valley,  defeated  the  confederates  in  the  battle  of  Winchester 
(September  19).  At  Cedar  Creek  his  army  (he  being  absent),  was 
routed ;  after  retreating  some  miles  a  stand  was  again  made.  Sheri- 
dan arrived,  and  late  in  the  day,  in  turn  routed  the  enemies. 

^  130.     Concluded.     Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea.     Sur- 
render of   Richmond  and  of  the  Confederate 
Army.     Lincoln  Assassinated.     Amend- 
ment   of    the    Constitution.      Free 
Homestead   Bill. 

Gen.  Sherman's  army  at  Chattanooga  was  put  in  motion  (May 
5th),  towards  Atlanta,  distant  140  miles.  This  whole  route  was 
contested  by  Johnston  in  a  series  of  battles,  among  which  the  most 
severe  were  at  Resaca  and  around  Dallas  and  Kenesaw  Mountain. 
By  the  middle  of  July,  Sherman's  army  was  before  Atlanta,  where 
furious  fighting  occurred  on  the  20th,  22d  and  28th.  Gen, 
McPherson  was  killed  here.  Gen.  Hood,  who  had  superseded 
Johnston,  withdrew  from  the  city  (Sept.  i),  and  Sherman  at  once 
occupied  this  important  town,  being  the  center  of  railroad  com- 
munication between  the  Western  and  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States. 
Hood,  by  seizing  Sherman's  line  of  suppHes,  compelled  the  army  to 
fall  back.  Sherman,  after  following  Hood  some  distance,  sent  Gen. 
Thomas  with  a  large  force  to  oppose  Hood,  while  he  himself 
returned  to  Atlanta ;  he  burned  the  town,  and  then  set  out  on  his 
remarkable  "  March  to  the  Sea,"  through  Georgia.  The  confed- 
erates had  no  army  that  could  offer  any  serious  resistance.     Sher- 

Whom  did  Lee  send  towards  Washington  ?  Wherefore  ?  Did  Early  suc- 
ceed ?  In  what  battle  was  Sheridan  victorious  ?  What  of  the  battle  of  Cedar 
Creek?  §  130.  Where  did  Sherman's  army  move  in  May,  1864.'*  Who  con- 
tested the  route  ?  In  what  battles  ?  Before  what  town  did  furious  fighting  oc- 
cur ?  What  general  was  killed  ?  Who  withdrew  ?  Why  was  Atlanta  an  import- 
ant town  ?  Why  was  Sherman  compelled  to  fall  back  ?  Whom  did  he  send 
against  Hood  ?     Where  did  he  return  to  ? 


316 

man,  on  his  march,  destroyed  their  supplies,  depriving  them,  by  this 
stratagem,  of  the  means  of  sustaining  their  armies.  Five  weeks 
after  his  departure  from  Atlanta  he  reached  the  sea,  and  carried 
Fort  McAllister  by  assault  (Dec.  13);  Savannah  surrendered  eight 
days  later  (Dec.  21).  This  done,  the  Union  army  was  in  communi- 
cation with  the  Union  fleet  off  the  coast. 

Meantime  Gen.  Hood,  tempted  by  Sherman's  withdrawal  from 
Atlanta,  attacked  Schofield  at  Franklin,  Tenn.,  and  after  a  severe 
battle  (November  3d)  forced  him  to  retreat  to  Nashville,  which  place 
Hood  then  besieged;  but  Thomas,  concentrating  his  forces  here, 
suddenly  attacked  him,  drove  him  from  his  entrenchment  and  com- 
pletely routed  him  (December  15-16).  Hood  had  to  retreat,  and 
being  pursued  by  the  victor,  his  army  was  nearly  destroyed. 

Other  operations  during  the  year  1864,  not  directly  connected 
with  the  two  main  campaigns,  were: 

First:  Gen.  Banks,  in  March,  led  an  expedition  from  New 
Orleans  into  the  Red  River  country,  Louisiana.  Two  actions  were 
fought — the  first,  Sabine  Cross  Roads  (April  8th),  being  a  confederate 
victory,  and  the  second.  Pleasant  Hill,  indecisive.  The  expedition 
was  given  up. 

Seco?id :  In  February,  Gen.  Sherman,  before  he  went  to  Chat- 
tanooga, made  an  expedition  from  Vicksburg,  during  which  the 
rebel  Gen.  Forrest  defeated  his  cavalry  column  and  captured  Fort 
Pillow,  where  he  most  cruelly  massacred  a  number  of  negroes  who 
composed  the  garrison.  Generally,  cruelty  was  the  animating  spirit 
of  the  rebelHon,  and  its  prison  discipline,  at  Anderson,  Salisbury, 
and  other  places  where  Union  soldiers  were  held,  was  a  rigidly 
observed  poHcy  of  delivering  to  death  the  greatest  number  in  the 
briefest  time,  and  by  the  most  barbarous  measures.  The  confeder- 
ates, in  the  treatment  of  their  prisoners,  outdid  the  cruelty  of 
Indian  warfare. 

In  July,  Admiral  Farragut,  with  a  powerful  fleet  and  land  force 
was  sent  against  Mobile;  he  succeeded  in  running  the  batteries  of 
the  forts  in  the  harbor  with  the  loss  of  but  one  vessel ;  he  attacked  the 


Give  an  account  of  his  march  to  the  sea.  What  stratagem  did  he  carry  out  ? 
What  was  his  success  ?  Whom  did  Gen.  Hood  attack  ?  Where  did  Schofield 
retreat  to  ?  Who  vanquished  Hood  here  ?  What  of  the  expedition  of  Gen. 
Banks  ?  Who  defeated  the  cavalry  column  of  Gen.  Sherman  ?  How  did  For- 
rest deal  with  the  negroes  in  Fort  Pillow  ?  In  general,  how  did  the  confeder- 
ates deal  with  their  prisoners  at  Anderson,  Salisbury  and  other  places  ?  De- 
scribe the  action  of  Admiral  Farragut  against  Mobile. 


317 

rebel  fleet,  destroying  among  other  vessels  the  "  Tennessee,"  the 
most  formidable  ram  ever  fitted  out  by  the  confederates.  Aided  by 
the  land  forces  of  Gen.  Granger,  he  took  the  forts  and  secured  pos- 
session of  Mobile  Bay.  The  city  surrendered  in  the  next  spring 
(1865).  Another  confederate  stronghold.  Fort  Fisher,  North  Car- 
olina, which  commanded  the  entrance  to  the  port  of  Wilmington, 
was  attacked  by  Admiral  Porter  and  Gen.  Butler  (in  December), 
without  success;  but  the  following  month  Gen.  Terry  assaulted 
and  captured  it  (Jan.  15,  1863).  In  the  fall  of  1864,  Abraham 
Lincoln  was  re-elected  president,  the  candidate  of  the  Democratic 
party  being-  General  McClellan. 

The  field  of  decisive  operations  was  now  reduced  to  the  States  of 
North  and  South  Carolina  and  Virginia.  During  the  winter  Gen. 
Sherman  overran  the  CaroHnas  with  his  victorious  army,  and  thereby 
cut  off  the  resources  of  Gen.  Lee.  He  found  nothing  to  oppose  his 
march  in  order  to  join  Grant,  except  a  small  confederate  force  which 
Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston  had  hastily  gathered  together.  The  first  point 
to  which  Sherman  marched  was  Columbia,  S.  C,  which  he  captured 
and  burned  (February  17th).  This  move  compelled  the  confeder- 
ates to  evacuate  Charleston  (February  17th).  Near  Averysboro, 
N.  C,  he  defeated  a  confederate  force,  and  at  Bentonville  fought 
a  successful  battle  against  Johnston.  On  March  23d  he  entered 
Goldsboro,  where  he  was  joined  by  forces  under  Generals  Schofield 
and  Terry. 

In  Virginia  Gen.  Grant,  in  the  spring  of  1865,  renewed  active 
operations  against  Petersburg.  Attacks  on  the  rebel  works  were 
made  daily,  with  heavy  losses  on  both  sides.  Sheridan,  with  his 
cavalry,  rode  through  the  Shenandoah  valley,  capturing  most  of  the 
remnants  of  Early's  force,  destroyed  the  canal  at  the  James  river, 
tore  up  the  railroads,  and  joined  Gen.  Grant  (March  26).  On  the 
I  St  of  April  the  decisive  battle  was  fought  at  Five  Forks,  in  which 
Sheridan  broke  through  the  rebel  forces,  and  thereby  decided  the 
contest  for  Richmond.     An  attack  was  then  made  along  the  whole 

What  did  he  destroy,  and  what  take  ?  When  did  the  city  surrender  ?  By 
whom  was  Fort  Fisher  attacked  ?  By  whom  captured  ?  What  States  did  Gen. 
Sherman  overrun  in  the  winter  of  1864-1865?  What  did  he  thereby  cut  off? 
What  general  opposed  him  on  his  march  ?  What  towns  did  he  take  ?  Where 
did  he  defeat  Johnston  ?  What  of  Gen.  Grant  in  Virginia  ?  Of  Sheridan  ? 
Whom  did  he  join  ?  When  was  the  decisive  battle  fought  ?  Who  broke  through 
the  rebel  forces  ?  Where  was  an  attack  made  on  the  2d  of  April  ?  What  was 
the  result  ? 


318 

line  of  works  in  front  of  Petersburg,  and  the  line  carried  at  several 
points  (April  2).  During  the  night  Lee  abandoned  Petersburg  and 
Richmond,  which  were  entered  by  the  Union  army  the  next  day 
(April  3).  Lee  retreated,  hoping  to  join  Johnston  in  North  Caro- 
Inia.  A  hot  pursuit  was  immediately  begun  by  Grant.  The  con- 
federate army  was  completely  surrounded  at  Appomattox  Court 
House,  and  here  Lee  surrendered  (April  9).  Gen.  Johnston,  hear- 
ing the  news  of  Lee's  yielding,  also  surrendered  (April  26).  By  the 
end  of  May  all  the  confederate  forces  had  surrendered,  and  the 
civil  war  was  at  an  end. 

The  news  of  this  happy  event  occasioned  the  greatest  joy 
throughout  the  country,  but  it  was  soon  changed  into  deep  mourn- 
ing, for  Lincoln  was  assassinated  in  the  theater  at  Washington, 
where  he  was  shot  in  the  head  (14th  of  April),  and  he  died  in  a  few 
hours.  His  murderer  was  the  actor  John  Wilkes  Booth.  On  the 
same  night  Secretary  Seward  was  dangerously  stabbed  by  another 
ruffian,  in  his  own  house,  while  lying  ill  in  bed. — Mr.  Lincoln  was 
an  honest,  clear-headed,  and  large-hearted  man.  His  wise  and 
firm  administration  of  affairs  in  such  perilous  and  difficult  times  had 
won  for  him  a  high  respect  and  love.  He  was  carried  to  his  grave 
amid  the  tears  of  a  nation,  which  will  keep  his  memory  equally 
sacred  with  that  of  Washington. — The  assassin  fled  into  Maryland, 
where  he  was  shot  by  one  of  his  pursuers.  Booth,  and  the  assail- 
ants of  Mr.  Seward,  were  members  of  a  band  of  conspirators,  of 
whom  several  were  afterwards  hanged. — Jefferson  Davis  was  cap- 
tured, then  kept  in  prison  for  a  time,  and  finally  liberated. — It  is 
stated  that  in  the  civil  war  on  both  sides  over  one  milHon  of  men 
were  either  killed  or  wounded.  The  national  debt,  at  the  end  of 
the  war,  was  about  $2,800,000,000,  of  which  thus  far  over  one-third 
has  been  paid  off. — It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment did  not  make  foreign  loans',  a  market  for  its  notes  and 
bonds  being  found  at  home,  chiefly  among  the  loyal  people  of  the 

What  of  Gen.  Lee  ?  Where  did  he  retreat  to  ?  Where  was  his  army  sur- 
rounded ?  What  was  the  effect  of  it  ?  What  of  Gen.  Johnston  ?  Where  and 
when  was  President  Lincohi  assassinated  ?  By  whom  ?  Who  was  assailed  at 
the  same  time  ?  What  was  the  character  of  Mr.  Lincohi .-'  How  was  his  burial 
honored?  With  whose  memory  will  that  of  Mr.  Lincoln  be  kept  equally  sacred? 
How  were  Booth  and  some  other  conspirators  punished  ?  What  of  Jefferson 
Davis  {  How  many  men  during  the  civil  war,  on  both  sides,  were  either  killed  or 
wounded  ?  What  of  the  national  debt  ?  Did  the  government  make  foreign 
loans  ?     Where  was  a  market  found  for  its  notes  and  bonds  ? 


319 

North.  The  war  was  carried  on  by  means  of  paper  money  called 
greenbacks.  These  were  first  issued  in  1862.  At  this  time  all  the 
banks  of  the  United  States  had  suspended  specie  payments.  As 
the  war  went  on,  gold  began  to  command  a  premium.  It  was  at  its 
highest  premium  in  1864,  when  a  dollar  sold  for  $2.85  in  green- 
backs. The  confederates  also  carried  on  the  war  by  means  of  paper 
money.  About  the  middle  of  the  war  this  money  began  to  depre- 
ciate very  much.  Before  the  close  of  the  contest  confederate  notes 
had  become  almost  worthless. 

The  people  voluntarily  contributed  milHons  of  dollars  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers.  From  the  humblest  country 
towns,  as  well  as  from  the  great  cities,  money  and  stores  were  freely 
tendered.  The  Sanitary  and  Christiaji  Commissions,  with  their 
supplies  and  aid,  penetrated  into  every  camp  and  hospital  in  the 
federal  army,  while  the  Union  and  various  Freedmen'' s  Commissions 
were  devoted  to  the  special  wants  of  the  distressed  Unionists  and 
destitute  freedmen  of  the  South.  In  this  way  the  enemies  of  public 
liberty  were  vanquished ;  but  the  nation  must  not  become  careless, 
for  other  enemies  of  liberty  can  and  will  still  arise.  She  must 
always  keep  wide-awake  in  order  to  preserve  that  precious  gem  of 
her  country.  The  starry  banner  of  the  Union,  planted  firmly  on 
the  ramparts  of  Liberty, 

" — Long  may  it  wave. 
O'er  the  land  of  the/r^^ 
And  the  home  of  the  braved 

By  two  amendments  of  the  constitution  (articles  13  and  15) 
slavery  was  abolished  in  the  United  States  and  the  right  of  suffrage 
given  also  to  the  colored  people. — Congress  reconstructed  the 
Southern  States,  but  the  difficulties  of  this  task  were  much  aggra- 
vated by  the  conflict  of  opinion  between  this  body  and  President 
Johnson,  Lincoln's  successor.  In  1867  congress  passed  the  Tenure 
of  Office  Bill,  which  said  that  all  those  civil  officers  whose  appoint- 
ment by  the  president  required  the  consent  of  the  senate,  should 
not  be  removed  from  office  without  the  senate's  permission.     After 

By  what  kind  of  money  was  the  war  carried  on  ?  What  of  the  banks  ?  How 
much  was  a  dollar  of  gold  worth  in  greenbacks  in  1869?  What  of  the  money 
used  by  the  confederates  ?  What  is  said  of  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the 
people,  and  of  charitable  organizations  ?  Of  what  ought  the  nation  to  take 
care  ?  In  what  manner  ?  What  was  abolished  by  amending  the  constitution, 
and  what  right  given  by  it  to  colored  people  ?  Who  reconstructed  the  Southern 
States  ?  By  whom  was  this  task  rendered  difficult  ?  What  was  the  meaning  of 
the  Tenure  of  Office  Bill  ? 


320 

the  session  of  congress  closed,  Jolinson  suspended  Mr.  Stanton,  the 
secretary  of  war,  from  office.  When  congress  met  again,  they  rein- 
stated Secretary  Stanton.  The  president  issued  an  order  removing 
him.  Congress  then  impeached  him  for  violating  the  Tenure  of 
Office  Bill,  and  only  one  vote  was  lacking  to  convict  him. — The 
United  States  bought  the  peninsula  Alaska  from  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment for  $7,200,000  (1867  A.  D.) — After  Johnson,  Gen.  Grant 
was  twice  elected  president.  The  last  president,  Garfield,  was 
assassinated  by  Guiteau,  because  the  former  did  not  appoint  him  to 
a  consulate  (1881  A.  D.)  The  ruffian  murderer  was  executed. 
The  vice-president,  Arthur,  followed  Garfield  in  the  office. — By  the 
Homestead  Bill  (passed  1862,  and  revised  1866)  citizens  are  entided 
to  settle,  free  from  expenses,  on  unsold  government  land,  to  the  ex- 
tent of  160  acres. — The  United  States  now  comprise  thirty-eight 
States  and  ten  territories,  with  more  than  fifty-seven  miUion  inhab- 
itants, whose  number  increases  annually  by  one  hundred  thousand 

immigrants. 

?  131.    Japan. 

The  ruling  dynasty  of  Japan  boasts  of  an  unbroken  succession 
during  twenty-five  centuries.  The  assumed  date  of  the  ascension 
of  its  founder  (660  B.  C.)  is  styled  the  year  i  of  the  Japanese  era. 
Its  emperors  are  called  Mikados.  In  the  sixth  century  A.  D.  Budd- 
hism was  introduced  from  China;  with  it  came  the  Asiatic  civiliza- 
tion. A  stream  of  skilled  artisans,  scholars,  teachers  and  missiona- 
ries poured  into  the  country,  and  thenceforth  the  Japanese  charac- 
ter was  molded  by  the  same  forces  that  gave  to  the  Chinese  its 
peculiar  features. 

The  Shogun  (commander-in-chief  of  the  army)  in  1192  A.  D. 
acquired  the  entire  control  of  political  affairs,  the  Mikado  retaining 
only  the  religious  supremacy  and  the  symbols  of  royalty.  Under 
this  dual  form  of  government,  there  grew  up  a  feudal  system,  the 

In  what  manner  did  President  Johnson  act  contrary  to  it  ?  Who  impeached 
him  then  ?  Was  he  convicted  ?  What  peninsula  did  the  United  States  buy  from 
Russia  ?  For  what  sum  ?  Who  was  president  after  Johnson  ?  How  did  Presi- 
dent Garfield  die  ?  Who  was  his  successor  ?  What  right  does  the  Homestead 
Bill  give  to  poor  settlers  ?  How  many  States  and  Territories  do  the  United 
States  now  comprise ?  How  many  inhabitants  do  they  contain?  ^131.  Dur- 
ing how  many  centuries  had  the  present  dynasty  of  Japan  (as  it  boasts)  ruled? 
In  what  year  (B.  C.)  begins  the  Japanese  era,''  What  are  the  Japanese  emperors 
called  ?  When  was  Buddhism  introduced  into  Japan  ?  What  civilization  came 
with  it  ?  Who  acquired  the  entire  control  of  political  affairs  in  1 192  ?  What  did 
the  Mikado  retain  ? 


321 

iniiitary  leaders  securing  land  in  fief,  erecting  castles,  and  support- 
ing a  host  of  retainers.  This  system  lasted  until  1868,  when  a 
revolution  restored  the  Mikado  to  supreme  power,  destroyed  the 
Shogun's  rule,  and  abolished  the  feudal  tides  and  tenures.  At  tJs^. 
command  of  the  Mikado,  250  vassal  nobles,  resigning  their  prirKs^lyr 
incomes,  lands  and  retinues,  retired  to  private  life. 

The  Portuguese,  during  their  ascendency  in  the  sixteenth^  cen- 
tury, came  to  Japan.  The  missionary  quickly  followed  the  sailor.. 
Francis  Xavier,  the  apostle  to  the  Indies,  introduced  Christianity 
(1549  A.  D.),  and,  in  time,  6oo,05o  converts  were  made.  This  sec- 
'<)\\d  influx  of  foreign  civilization  was  stopped  by  the  expulsion  of 
the  Poi'tViguese  and  a  violent  persecution  of  the  Christian  Japanese. 
The  t)utch  alone  were  allowed  a  residence  upon  an  island  in  the 
haitbor  of  Nagasaki,  and  to  exchange  a  single  ship-load  of  mer- 
chandise per  year. 

Commodore  Perry,  with  a  s'(\Uadron  of  United  States  vessels,, 
entered  the  harbor  of  Yokohama  (1854  A.  D.)  He  made  a  treaty 
with  Japan,  and  secured  the  opening  of  certain  ports  to  our  trade- 
Since  then,  the  third  foreign  immigration  followed.  Successive 
commercial  treaties  have  been  n)ade.  The  former  exclusiveness  has^ 
been  broken  down,  old  ideas  have  been  uprooted,  and  the  nation 
has  been  thrust  into  the  path  of  modern  civilization.  In  1875,  ^^ 
Mikado  established  a  senate.  In  1878  he  inaugurated  provincial! 
and  departmental  assemblies,  and  in  188 1  he  promised  to  convoke 
in  1890  a  national  congress. 


SEOOND  OHAPTEK-HISTORY  OF  OIVILIZATIOi!J  IN  THE  lONTH 
AND  TENTH  PERIODS. 


§  132.     Constitutions.     Political    and   Social    Tendencies.. 

Position  of  Woman.     Military  Condition. 

The   Church. 

Most  of  the  European  princes,  in  our  century,  acknowledge  the 
principle  that  the  constitutional  monarchy  which  unites  the  rights 

What  system  grew  up  under  this  dual  form  of  government  ?  How  long  did 
it  last?  What  reforms  did  the  Mikado  make?  Which  Europeans  came  to 
Japan  in  the  i6th  century  ?  What  of  Francis  Xavier  ?  What  adversity  befell 
the  Portuguese  and  the  Christian  Japanese?  Which  nation  alone  was  permitted, 
to  stay  in  Japan  ?  Where?  What  of  Commodore  Perry  ?  What  then  followed  ?■ 
What  civilization  did  since  spread  ?  What  reforms  did  the  Mikado  inaugurate  ia 
1875?  I^  1878?  What  did  he  promise?  ^132.  What  principle  do  most  of 
the  European  princes  acknowledge  ? 

(21) 


322 

of  the  rulers  and  of  the  nations,  is  the  form  of  government  that  best 
corresponds  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  to  the  desires  of  the  peo- 
ple, therefore  the  representative  system  became  prevalent.  Accord- 
ing to  it  the  people,  through  their  representatives,  exert  the  right  to 
levy  taxes,  to  take  part  in  legislation,  and  to  enjoy  more  liberty  of 
the  press.  Russia  and  Turkey  only  did  not  adopt  this  new  form  of 
constitution.  The  last  revolutions  endeavored  to  enlarge  the  demo- 
cratic foundation  of  the  States,  and  the  principle  of  the  sovereignty 
of  the  people  is  more  generally  acknowledged.  Two  parties,  thus 
far,  contended  inside  of  the  States,  namely,  the  Liberals  (democrats, 
repubUcans),  and  the  Aristocrats  (conservatives).  The  latter  would 
grant  the  least  possible  rights  to  the  people.  The  governments 
sided  with  them.     The  former  represented  the  opposition  party. 

Other  outgrowths  in  the  State  organism,  are  sociaHsm  and  com- 
munism ;  they  appear  especially  in  France,  England  and  Germany, 
where  the  number  of  proletaries,  in  proportion  to  the  capital- 
ists and  landed  proprietors,  has  greatly  increased.  The  socialists 
desire  a  juster  distribution  of  property,  progressive  taxes,  limitation 
of  the  heirship,  abrogation  of  monopolies,  lease  of  public  land  by 
the  State,  right  of  woman  suffrage,  workmen  associations,  etc.  The 
communists,  on  the  contrary,  demand  complete  community  of 
property,  by  abolishing  the  right  of  ownership.  The  late  revolu- 
tions in  France  and  Germany  were,  in  part,  of  the  socialistic  kind. 
In  Russia,  the  socialists  are  called  Nihilists,  because  they  aim  to 
destroy  and  annihilate  all  tyrannical  institutions  of  the  govern- 
ment. They  are  organized  in  secret  societies,  whose  members  are 
numbered  by  thousands;  they  form  the  opposition  party  of  the 
despotic  government. 

The  position  of  woman  is  far  better  now,  at  least  in  the  United 
States,  in  England  and  in  France,  than  it  was  fifty  years  ago.  The 
property  of  the  wife  is  withdrawn  from  the  control  of  the  husband 
in  England,  in  France  and  in  most  of  the  United  States.  Many 
trades   and   professions   are    now  thrown  open  to  the  practice  of 

What  political  system  became  prevalent  ?  What  rights  do  the  people  exert 
through  their  representatives  ?  What  States  did  not  adopt  the  new  form  of  con- 
stitution ?  What  was  the  aim  of  the  last  revolutions  .-*  What  two  parties  are 
contending  inside  of  the  States  ?  What  of  the  conservative  party  ?  In  what 
States  does  socialism  especially  manifest  itself?  What  do  the  socialists  desire? 
What  are  they  called  in  Russia?  What  do  the  communists  demand?  What  is 
the  condition  of  woman  now?  Give  some  details  of  its  improvement;  of  the 
free  property  of  the  wife;  of  the  trades  and  professions  practiced  by  women;  of 
their  admission  to  the  higher  professions;  and  of  their  right  of  suffrage. 


323 

woman.  Thousands  are  school-teachers,  governesses  and  music- 
teachers  ;  painters,  photographers,  lithographers,  book-keepers,  cash- 
iers and  attendants  in  retail  stores;  compositors,  telegraph  clerks 
and  operators.  Many  are  employed  in  post-offices  and  other 
branches  of  civil  service.  At  Washington  there  are  at  least  i,ooo 
women  appointed  in  the  different  offices  of  the  national  govern- 
ment. Some  make  a  good  living  on  the  stage,  because  the  preju- 
dice against  the  reputation  of  actresses  is  vanishing.  In  some 
places  women  are  also  admitted  to  the  higher  vocations  of  life ; 
e.  g.,  to  the  bar  and  medical  practice.  There  are  many  female  phy- 
sicians in  England  and  America.  In  several  of  the  larger  cities  of 
those  countries  are  medical  schools  for  women.  Since  1870  twenty- 
three  ladies  (most  of  them  from  Russia,  and  some  from  the  United 
States  of  America),  were  graduated  in  the  medical  department  of 
the  University  of  Zurich.  In  the  United  States  the  right  of  woman 
suffirage  is  advocated  by  many,  and  has  been  thus  far  granted  by 
the  legislature  of  Minnesota,  and  in  the  Territories  of  Wyoming 
and  Washington. 

As  most  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe  have,  in  their  States, 
copied  the  military  system  of  Prussia,  it  will  suffice  to  give  the  out- 
lines of  the  latter.  All  Prussians  are  trained  to  niilitary  service ; 
every  young  man  enters  the  army  at  twenty,  and  serves  for  three 
years ;  for  the  next  nine  years  he  is  in  the  reserve,  liable  to  serve  in 
offensive  war;  thereafter,  for  another  eighteen  years,  till  he  has 
attained  the  age  of  fifty,  he  may  be  called  on  to  serve  at  home  in 
case  of  invasion.  The  standing  armies  of  the  European  States  are 
increasing,  devouring  their  revenues  and  wealth. 

New  and  more  liberal  views  also  made  their  appearance  in  mat- 
ters relating  to  the  Church.  In  general.  Christians  became  more 
tolerant  of  their  opponents.  Liberty  of  conscience  was  granted  in 
most  countries  by  the  new  constitutions.  The  Lutherans  and  Re- 
formers in  Germany,  for  the  most  part,  united.  A  host  of  ingenious 
writers,  like  Buckle,  Darwin,  Tyndall,  Herbert  Spencer,  Huxley, 
Lecky,  Macaulay,  Theo.  Parker,  Draper,  Alex,  von  Humboldt, 
Feuerbach,  Dr.  David  Strauss,  Louis  Biichner,  Colenzo,  Renan,  etc., 
and  a  number  of  liberal  periodicals  and  orators  disseminated  more 
religious   enlightenment.     In    the    Catholic    Church,    the    German 

Describe  the  Prussian  military  system  ?  What  is  the  condition  of  the  church  ? 
What  liberty  is  granted  by  the  new  constitutions  ?  What  of  Lutherans  and  Re- 
formers in  Germany .''  What  authors  did  and  do  disseminate  more  enlighten- 
ment ?     Who  separated  from  the  papacy  ? 


324 

Catholics,  as  they  are  called,  separated  from  the  papacy.  The 
Protestants  in  Germany  and  America  established  free  religious  con- 
gregations, and  a  congress  of  liberal  Americans  organized  a 
National  Liberal  League,  the  object  of  which  is  to  accomplish  the 
total  separation  of  Church  and  State  (1876  A.  D.)  But  the  spirit 
of  reaction  was  also  at  work  against  the  efforts  of  progress;  e.  g.y 
the  Order  of  Jesuits,  revived  in  the  last  period.  Pope  Pius  VII. 
re-established  it  (18 14  A.  D.);  it  was  admitted  not  only  into  the 
papal  dominions,  but  into  most  countries  of  Europe.  True,  by  the 
last  revolutions  it  was  almost  everywhere  abolished  again,  still  it 
returned,  together  with  the  old  state  of  reaction. 

^  133.     Arts  and  Sciences.     Public  Schools. 

France — Poets :  Victor  Hugo,  Lamartine  and  Beranger.  The 
latter  encouraged  the  people  in  the  time  of  the  restoration  by  his 
pohtical  poems,  etc.  Historians :  Chateaubriand,  etc.  The  first 
French  revolution  was  described  by  Rabaut,  St.  Etienne  and  Thiers ; 
the  history  of  the  Consulate  and  Empire,  by  Thibaudeau ;  the  Russian 
campaign,  by  Segur ;  the  revolution  of  July,  in  1830,  by  Salvandy  and 
Dupin.  Philosophers :  August  Comte  was  the  greatest  philosopher ; 
his  work,  "  Positive  Philosophy,"  is  a  great  achievement.  Others:  V. 
Cousin  and  Volney;  the  latter  is  known  by  his  work  "The  Ruins.'* 
Mathejuaticians  and  Astronomers :  La  Place,  La  Grange,  Lalande, 
Arago  and  Leverrier,  who  discovered  the  planet  Neptune.  Cuvier 
was  the  most  eminent  naturalist.  Composers :  Auber,  etc.  Political 
Orators:  Mirabeau,  Vergniaud,  Manuel,  Benj.  Constant,  Gam- 
betta,  etc. 

England — Walter  Scott  and  Lord  Byron,  in  the  two  last  periods, 
earned  the  highest  applause  of  all  English  poets.  The  former, 
besides  several  poems,  wrote  many  novels,  which  are  founded  on 
historical  subjects.  Byron  was  an  epic,  narrative  and  dramatic  poet 
("Childe  Harold,"  "  Don  Juan  ").  He  took  part  in  the  contest  of 
the  delivery  of  the  Greeks,  in  which  he  sacrificed  a  great  part  of 
his  fortune  and  his  life.     Other  poets:     Shelley  ("Queen  Mab"), 

What  congregations  did  the  Protestants  establish  ?  What  league  was  organ- 
ized in  America?  What  is  the  object  of  the  league?  What  of  reaction ?  Give 
an  example  of  its  activity.  \  133.  France — Poets  ?  What  of  Beranger  ?  His- 
torians ?  What  of  August  Comte  ?  Astronomers  ?  What  planet  did  Leverrier 
discover  ?  Orators  ?  Composers  ?  Eitgland — Poets  ?  Which  were  the 
greatest  ?  What  did  Walter  Scott  write  ?  What  of  Byron  ?  In  what  war  did 
he  take  part  ?     What  did  he  sacrifice  ?     Other  poets  ? 


325 

Coleridge,  Alfred  Tennyson  ("Queen  Mary"),  Thomas  Moore 
{"  Lalla  Rookh,"  "  Irish  Melodies  "),  Bulwer  ("  Lady  of  Lyons  "), 
Robert  Burns,  the  great  national  poet  of  Scotland,  Jerrold 
("Mrs.  Caudle's  Curtain- Lectures,"  "  Biack-eyed  Susan"),  T. 
Hood  ("  Song  of  the  Shirt "),  etc.  Historians :  Hume  ("  History 
of  England  "),  Macaulay  ("  History  of  England  "),  Froude  ("  His- 
tory of  England  and  Ireland  "),  Buckle  ("  History  of  Civilization  in 
England  "),  Lecky,  Carlyle,  Gibbon  ("  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire"),  etc.  Philosophers :  Herbert  Spencer,  who  imparted 
a  systematic  knowledge  of  all  branches  of  philosophy ;  Stuart  Mill, 
Hume  ("Essays"),  Lecky,  Hamilton,  etc.  Natural  Philosophers : 
Tyndall,  Faraday,  Lyell  ("  Geology  "),  Huxley  ("  Lay  Sermons  "), 
Wallace,  and  the  most  eminent  of  all,  Charles  Darwin,  author  of  the 
doctrine  of  natural  descent,  propounded  in  his  celebrated  work 
^'  Origin  of  Species,"  by  which  he  inaugurated  a  new  era  of  natural 
science.  Mathematicians :  John  Hershel  (the  son  of  William  Her- 
shel).  Hind,  the  discoverer  of  many  planets,  etc.  Novelists :  Charles 
Dickens,  Bulwer  (Lord  Lytton),  Thackeray,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Brown- 
ing, M.  Ann  Evans  (under  the  assumed  name  of  George  Eliot), 
Miss  Harriet  Martineau,  etc.  Parliamentary  Orators:  George 
Canning ;  Wilberforce,  who,  by  his  speeches,  greatly  aided  in  the 
abolishment  of  the  slave  trade;  Daniel  O'Connell,  etc. 

Italy — Poets:  Metastasio,  Alfieri,  Silvio  Pellico.  The  latter  was 
arrested  because  he  was  a  member  of  the  society  of  the  Carbonaris 
(1820  A.  D.),  and  kept  in  prison  for  ten  years.  He  represented  the 
sufferings  he  endured  beneath  the  leads  of  the  jail  in  Venice,  in  an 
aftecting  manner.  Mathematicians :  Galvani,  Volta,  Y\2iZ7A^  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  planet  Ceres.     Composers :     Rossini,  Verdi,  etc. 

Germany — Poetry  attained  its  highest  standard  with  Klopstock, 
Herder,  Wieland,  and  the  two  most  perfect  German  poets,  Schiller 
(t  1805  A.  D.),  and  Goethe  (t  1832  A.  D.)  Wieland's  numerous 
writings  express  a  cheerful  view  of  life.  In  his  philosophical 
novels  he  attacks  superstition  with  delicate  irony.  Schiller's 
works   breathe   love    of    liberty,   fervor   of    emotions,  and  a  lofty 

Historians  ?  Philosophers  ?  About  what  did  Herbert  Spencer  write  ? 
Natural  philosophers  ?  Who  was  the  most  eminent  ?  Why  ?  Astronomers  ? 
What  did  Hind  discover  ?  Novelists  ?  What  is  the  assumed  name  of  M.  Ann 
Evans  ?  Orators  ?  What  of  Wilberforce  ?  Italy — Poets  ?  What  did  Silvio 
Pellico  describe  .?  Mathematicians  ?  Composers  ?  Germany — Poets  ?  Who 
were  the  two  most  accomplished  poets  ? 


326 

moral  earnest.  Therefore  he  became  the  favorite  poet  of  the  Ger- 
man nation.  Goethe  was  great  almost  in  every  branch  of  poesy. 
Only  the  best  known  of  the  many  excellent  poets  can  here  be 
named.  Epic  Poets :  Wieland  ("  Oberon"),  Goethe  ("  Herman 
and  Dorothea"),  Salomon  Tobler.  Poets  of  Idyls :  Voss  ("Luisa"), 
Gessner.  Lyric  Poets  :  Klopstock,  Mathisson,  Burger  ("  Elenore  ")y 
Herder,  Salis,  Uhland,  Heine,  Riickert  (harnessed  sonnets),  the 
most  productive  among  the  modern  ones ;  Holty,  Geibel,  Gottfried 
Keller,  Auersperg  (under  the  assumed  name  of  Anastasius  Griin) 
("  Walks  of  a  Poet  of  Vienna"),  Freiligrath,  Herwegh  ("  Poems  of 
a  Living  One" — '*  Gedichte  eines  Lebendigen"),  Prutz.  The  four 
last  named  gained  the  highest  applause  by  their  political  songs. 
Auersperg  was  banished  from  Vienna,  and  Freiligrath,  of  his  own 
accord,  relinquished  a  pension  granted  to  him  by  the  king  of  Prussia. 
Tragic  Poets :  Frederic  Schiller  ("  Don  Carlos,"  "  Wallenstein," 
"  William  Tell"),  Goethe  ("  Egmont,"  "  Faust  "),  Grillparzer,  Rau- 
pach,  etc.  Writers  of  Cofuedies :  Henry  Kleist  ("  Kate  of  Heil- 
bronn" — "  Das  Kathchen  von  Heilbronn"),  Bauernfeld,  and  Kotze- 
bue,  who  wrote  more  than  200  plays.  Fabulists  :  Pfeffel,  Gellert, 
Frohlich.  Historians:  Rotteck,  who  was  dismissed  from  his  professor- 
ship by  reason  of  his  "  Universal  History,"  written  in  a  liberal  spirit; 
Schlosser,  Schiller  ("  Thirty  Years'  War"),  and  John  Mueller  ("  His- 
tory of  the  Swiss  Confederacy"),  Heeren,  Ge.  Kolb  ("  History  of 
Civilization  of  Mankind" — "  Culturgeschichte  der  Menschheit")^ 
G.  Weber,  etc.  Historians  of  Literature  :  Gervinus,  L.  Ettmiiller, 
Johannes  Scherr,  etc.  Philosophers :  Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel,  L. 
Feuerbach,  Schoppenhauer.  Natural  Philosophers:  Alexander 
Humboldt  ("  Cosmos"),  Karl  Vogt,  Baumgartner,  Louis  Biichner, 
Moleschott,  Berzelius  (chemist),  Liebig  (chemist),  etc.,  Ritter 
(geographer).  Astronomers  :  F.  W.  Bessel,  while  living  the  lead- 
ing astronomer  of  the  world ;  Gauss,  Bode,  Littrow,  Struve,  etc. 
Theological  Writers  :  Dr.  David  Strauss  ("  Life  of  Jesus,"  "  Old 
and  New  Faith"),  Zschokke,  etc.  The  latter  wrote  also  good 
novels,  a  history  of  Switzerland,  etc.  Philologues  :  Adelung,  Jacob 
Grimm,  Becker,  C.  Orelli  (editor  of  "  Cicero"),  L.  Ettmiiller  (author 
of  an  Anglo-Saxon  dictionary,  etc.  Sculptors  :  Dannecker,  Thor- 
waldsen,  etc.     Painters  :     Cornelius,  Kaulbach,  etc.     Public   Ora- 

Epic  poets  ?  Poets  of  Idyls  ?  Lyric  poets  ?  Political  poets  ?  Tragic  poets  ? 
Writers  of  comedies?  Fabulists?  Historians?  Wherefore  was  Rotteck  dis- 
missed from  the  professorship  ?  Philosophers?  Natural  philosophers  ?  Astron- 
omers ?     Theological  writers  ?     Philologues  ?     Sculptors  ?     Orators  ? 


327 

tors  :  Saalfeld,  Rotteck,  Welker;  and  in  Switzerland:  Dr.  Keller, 
Dr.  Furrer,  Caspar  Hirzel,  etc.  Composers :  Mozart  (''Don  Juan," 
"  The  Enchanted  Flute"),  Joseph  Haydn,  Beethoven,  Mendelssohn, 
Carl  Maria  Weber,  Schubert,  Wagner,  etc. 

Russia — Ivan  Turgenjew,  the  ingenious  Russian  novelist,  was 
much  admired  for  the  lofty  imagination,  love  of  liberty  and  patriot- 
ism expressed  in  his  works.  They  were  translated  from  the  Rus- 
sian into  several  modern  languages.  He  died  in  voluntary  exile 
(1883  A.  D.) 

Untied  States  of  America — Poets  :  Bryant  ("  Thanatopsis  "), 
Longfellow  ("  Miles  Standish,"  "  Golden  Legend,"  "  Hiawatha  "), 
Whittier,  Simms,  Mrs.  Sigourney,  Holmes,  Poe,  J.  G.  Saxe,  Fitz- 
Green  Halleck  ("  Marco  Bozzaris"),  Mrs.  Maria  Brooks  ("  Maria 
del'Occidente  "),  Mrs.  Frances  Osgood,  Misses  Alice  and  Phoebe 
Cary,  etc.  Historians :  Geo.  Bancroft  ("  History  of  the  United 
States  of  America"),  Pfescott,  Hildreth,  Modey,  Bryant  ("Popular 
History  of  the  United  States  of  America  "),  etc.  Philosophers :  J. 
Fiske,  Emerson,  Draper,  etc.  In  Natural  History  :  Louis  Agassiz, 
Asa  Gray,  etc.  In  Natural  Science :  J.  D.  Dana,  J.  W.  Draper,  F. 
Mawry,  etc.  Mathematicians :  Nath.  Bowditch,  Benj.  Peirce,  Ch. 
Davies,  etc.  Philologers :  Noah  Webster  (Dictionary);  J.  Wor- 
cester (Dictionary).  Pedagogical  Writers:  Horace  Mann,  Susan 
Wixon,  Elmina  Slenker,  S.  G.  Goodrich  ("Peter  Parley"),  Mrs. 
Sigourney,  Mrs.  Parton  ("  Fanny  Fern  "),  Mrs.  L.  M.  Child,  N. 
Hawthorne,  etc.  Romance  and  Miscellaneous  Writers:  Cooper, 
Wash.  Irving,  Hawthorne,  Channing,  Sam  Putnam,  Frances  Osgood, 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  ("  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin"),  and  a  hundred 
other  good  authoresses  who  cannot  be  mentioned  in  a  compendium. 
Orators:  Dan.  Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Benton,  Edward  Ever- 
ett, Wendell  Phillips  (f  1884),  Seward,  Prentice,  Chas.  Sumner, 
Stephens,  Douglas,  Choate,  Blaine,  Robert  Ingersoll,  Henry  Ward 
Beecher,  etc.  In  the  Fine  Arts,  also,  the  American  school  of 
painters  and  sculptors  stands  very  high. 

Newspapers — Americans  are  pre-eminently  a  newspaper-read- 
mg  people.  The  newspaper  is  the  people's  library.  It  is  estimated 
that  there  are  about  eight  thousand  different  newspapers  and  per- 
iodicals published  in  the  United  States. 

Composers  ?  United  States — Poets  ?  Historians  ?  Philosophers  ?  Authors 
in  Natural  History  and  Natural  Science  ?  Mathematicians  ?  Philologers  ? 
Pedagogical  writers  ?  Romance  writers  ?  Orators  ?  What  of  Fine  Arts  ?  Of 
newspapers  ? 


328 

Public  Education — The  following  pedagogues  deserved  well  of 
the  public  education:  Lancaster  (1798  A.  D.)  and  Bell  (181 2  A.  D.) 
in  England,  by  institution  of  mutual  instruction ;  in  Switzerland, 
H.  Pestalozzi,  Thomas  Scherr;  in  Germany,  Campe  ("Robinson 
Crusoe  "),  Niemeier,  Diesterweg,  etc. 

In  Germany,  Switzerland,  the  United  States  of  America,  and  other 
countries,  Turner  Associations  are  organized  in  order  to  develop  the 
physical  strength  and  abiHty  of  their  members  and  of  the  youth. 
In  the  United  States  the  Turners  have  a  membership  of  28,000. 

In  Prussia,  the  schools  of  which  are  believed  to  be  the  best  (in 
Germany),  education  is  compulsory,  and  in  practice  almost  universal. 
Over  four  million  children,  or  nearly  one  in  every  six  of  the 
population,  attend  the  elementary  schools.  A  small  fee  is  charged ; 
the  balance  is  contributed  by  a  local  tax.  The  Minister  of  Public 
Education  is  at  the  head  of  the  educational  system.  In  Switzerland, 
too,  the  public  schools  of  the  Protestant  cantons  are  in  an  excellent 
condition.  It  takes  six  years  to  pass  through  the  several  grades  of 
the  elementary*  education.  There  are,  besides,  many  high  schools, 
six  universities,  polytechnical  schools,  academies,  etc.  Some  cantons 
spend  the  fourth  part  of  the  public  revenues  for  public  instruction. — 
In  America^  Co?n?non  Schools  are  established,  which  are  well  organ- 
ized, and  in  which  all  classes  can  be  educated.  These  schools  pro- 
vide the  means  of  education  to  all  classes,  including  the  children  of 
the  freedmen.  The  teachers  are  prepared  in  Normal  schools  for 
their  vocations.  Most  of  them  are  female  teachers.  Over  400 
colleges  and  universities  supply  the  wants  of  higher  education. 

^  134.     Inventions.    Steamboats.    Railroads.    Telegraphs. 

Cable.    Telephones,    Photography.    Cotton-gin. 

International  Exhibition  of  Arts 

and  Industry. 

During  this  (the  19th)  century  there  has  been  an  almost  complete 
revolution  in  nearly  every  branch  of  industry.     The  substitution  of 

Of  public  education  ?  Give  the  names  of  some  renowned  pedagogues  in 
England,  Switzerland  and  Germany.  Who  wrote  "  Robinson  Crusoe  "  for  the 
youth  ?  Give  an  outline  of  the  Prussian  school  system.  How  many  children 
attend  the  elementary  schools  ?  How  are  the  expenses  of  the  schools  provided 
for?  What  of  the  public  schools  in  the  Protestant  cantons  in  Switzerland? 
What  of  elementary  and  higher  education  ?  Explain  the  system  of  the  common 
schools  in  America.  Where  are  the  teachers  prepared  for  their  vocation  ?  How 
many  higher  institutes  are  there  ?  ^  134.  What  good  effects  did  the  introduction 
of  machine  labor  and  the  application  of  steam  to  machinery  produce  ? 


329 

machine  labor  for  that  of  human  force  has  added  immensely  to  the 
production  of  the  comforts  of  Hfe,  and  the  application  of  steam  to 
the  machines  has  made  them  more  rapid  in  production.  The  prac- 
tical application  of  the  steam-engine  to  navigation  was  made  in 
1807,  when  a  steamboat,  built  by  Robert  Fulton,  was  launched 
on  the  Hudson  river,  and  finally  the  ocean,  as  well  as  rivers  and 
lakes,  was  traversed  by  steam  vessels.  The  application  of  steam  to 
carriages  was  the  next  step  in  modern  invention.  This  was  effected 
in  the  United  States  by  Oliver  Evans,  and  in  England  by  George 
and  Robert  Stephenson. 

The  first  railroad  of  the  United  States  was  operated  m  Quincy, 
Massachusetts  (1827  A.  D.)  The  second,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
(1828  A.  D.)  Another  early  railroad  was  the  South  Carolina  (1833 
A.  D.),  of  135  miles,  at  that  time  the  longest  in  the  world.  There 
are  at  present  about  100,000  miles  of  railroad  in  the  United  States. 
The  trans-continental  railroad  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  is 
3,600  miles  long.  It  was  completed  in  1869. — Steam  was  also 
employed  for  printing,  and  thereby  the  printing  of  books  greatly 
facilitated  and  their  price  materially  lessened.  The  Daguerreotype, 
and  the  photographic  art  seems  to  supersede  portrait  painting. — 
The  sewing-machine  faciUtates  the  work  of  the  seamstress. 

The  electro-magnetic  telegraph,  and  its  appliance  to  submarine 
cables,  are  also  American  inventions.  Prof.  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  in- 
vented the  telegraph.  The  first  telegraph  line  was  stretched  be- 
tween Washington  and  Baltimore  (1844  A.  D.)  There  are  at 
present  over  one  hundred  thousand  miles  of  telegraph  wires  in 
operation.  The  first  submarine  Atlantic  cable  was  laid  between 
Newfoundland  and  Ireland  by  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Company, 
President  Field  (185 7-1858  A.  D.)  It  was  worked  for  a  brief 
period,  and  then  failed.  Another  cable  was  laid  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  Mr.  Field,  and  proved  an  entire  success  (1866  A.  D.) 
The  first  submarine  cable  was  laid  in  the  Straits  of  Dover,  connect- 
ing Dover  and  Calais  (1851  A.  D.) 

Who  built  the  first  steamboat  ?  When  i*  On  what  river  was  the  trial  trip 
made?  Who,  in  America,  first  applied  steam  to  railroads?  Who  in  England? 
Where  was  the  first  railroad  built  in  America  ?  Where  the  second  ?  Where  the 
longest  of  that  time?  How  many  miles  of  railroad  are  there  in  the  United 
States  ?  How  long  is  the  central  trans-continental  railroad  ?  ^When  was  it  com- 
pleted ?  For  what  press  was  steam  also*  employed  ?  What  of  Daguerreotype 
and  photographic  art  ?  Who  invented  the  electro-magnetic  telegraph  ?  Where 
was  the  first  telegraph  line  stretched  ?  How  many  miles  of  telegraph  wires  are 
in  operation  in  the  United  States  ?  Between  what  islands  was  the  first  Atlantic 
cable  laid  ? 


330 

The  telephone  was  invented  by  Reis,  of  Frankfort  (1861  A.  D.), 
to  telegraph  musical  sounds  and  the  sounds  of  speech.  Bell  of 
Boston,  and  Edison  of  New  Jersey,  are  also  claimants  for  its  inven- 
tion.— The  electric  light  is  also  used  for  lighting  streets,  large  halls, 
hotels,  palaces,  beacons,  etc. 

Another  American  invention  is  the  cotton-gin.  This  machine, 
by  which  the  seeds  are  separated  from  cotton,  was  constructed  by 
Eli  Whitney  while  in  Savannah  (1792  A.  D.)  It  greatly  stimulated 
the  cultivation  of  cotton.  Gradually  cotton  became  almost  the  ex- 
clusive staple  of  the  Gulf  States.  America  controls  the  cotton  sup- 
ply of  the  world. — Immigration  from  Europe  helps  to  build  up  the 
power  of  the  United  States.  They  received  in  ten  years  (from 
i860  to  1870)  four  and  a  half  million  emigrants.  The  amount  of 
their  surplus  products  which  they  can  sell  to  other  countries  is 
growing  with  their  population.     Year  by  year  their  imports  diminish. 

In  London,  an  international  exhibition  of  the  different  goods  of 
all  cultivated  countries  on  earth  took  place,  in  order  to  promote 
industry  and  commerce  (1851  A.  D.)  It  took  eight  hours  in  order 
to  pass  around  all  the  tables  in  the  immense  Crystal  Palace  where  the 
goods  were  exposed.  There  were,  side  by  side,  Swiss  and  Ameri- 
can manufactures,  shawls  of  Norwich  and  Cashmere,  English,. 
Turkish  and  Persian  carpets,  jewels  from  Paris  and  Delhi.  The 
committee  of  a  jury,  at  the  end  of  the  exhibition,  distributed  7,000 
prizes.  Similar  presentations  were  since  made  in  several  countries. 
In  Philadelphia  an  exhibition  was  arranged  when  the  Centennial 
Festival  of  the  Union  was  celebrated  there  (1876  A.  D.) 

EXERCISES. 

Biographies :  I.  Lafayette — {a)  in  the  American  war,  {b)  in  the  French 
revohition,  (<:)  during  the  days  of  revolution  in  Paris  in  1830.  2.  Bolivar. — 
Describe  the  following  contests  for  liberty  :  i.  Contest  of  the  Poles  in  1830  ; 
{a)  causes  of  the  insurrection,  {b)  its  beginning,  {c)  the  arming  for  contest, 
{d)  the  warfare,  {e)  the  issue,  and  the  consequences  of  the  contest.  2.  Com- 
bat of  the  Greeks  ;  {^a)  fight  of  Ypsilanti,  {^b)  contest  in  Greece,  {c)  single 
exploits,  {d)  downfall  of  Missolonghi,  {e)  foreign  assistance,  (/")  termination 
of  the   combat.     3.  War   of  the    Hungarians. — Give  an  account  of  the  French 

By  whom  ?  When  }  When  again  ?  When  was  the  cable  between  Dover  and 
Calais  laid  ?  Whp  invented  the  cotton-gin  ?  What  success  did  the  machine 
have  in  America?  How  many  immigrants  did  the  United  States  receive  in  ten 
years  ?  What  influence  has  the  increase  of  population  in  selling  the  products  of 
the  land  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  international  exhibition  in  London  in  185 1  ? 
Where  and  when  was  a  similar  one  arranged  in  America? 


331 

revolutions  in  1830  and  1848  ;  also  of  the  revolutions  in  Berlin  and  Vienna.  In 
what  countries  did  levolutions  break  out  in  the  years  1820,  1830  and  1848  ?  In 
what  months  did  the  revolutions  of  1848  take  place  ?  When  did  the  Mexican 
war  with  the  United  States  begin  ?  When  did  the  Americans  enter  the  city  of 
Mexico  ?  W^hat  American  generals  excelled  in  the  Mexican  war  ?  How  long 
did  the  war  last  ?  When  were  the  Catholics  emancipated  in  England  ?  W^hat 
chieftain  of  the  Caucasians  became  renowned  in  their  war  against  Russia  ? 
Give  the  names  of  some  eminent  public  orators  of  England  and  the  United 
States  in  the  two  last  periods.  What  important  events  happened  in  the  years 
1348,  1648,  1748  and  1848?  Who  captured  the  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  ? 
Had  the  Southern  States  the  right  to  secede  ?  When  did  Fort  Sumter  surren- 
der ?  When  Vicksburg  ?  Which  was  the  greatest  battle  during  the  secession 
war  ?  When  were  the  slaves  of  the  Confederate  States  emancipated  ?  What 
general  of  the  Union  gained  the  victory  at  Nashville  ?  Why  did  General  Sher- 
man undertake  a  campaign  through  the  Confederate  States  ?  When  was  Rich- 
mond taken  ?     When  did  General  Lee  surrender  ? 


ERRATA. 

Page    ID,  line    7  from  above,  instead  of  Athense,  read  Athene. 
"  "  Athena,  read  Athenge. 

**  "  Aphis,  read  Apis. 

**  **  Egyptians,  read  Egyptian. 

**  "  maga,  read  magian. 

"  **  their,  read  the. 

"  "  pleague,  read  plague. 

"  •*  Conossa,  read  Canossa. 

Philip  IV.,  read  Philip  VI. 

Philip  I.,  read  Philip  II. 
"  "  Alexander  I.,  read  Alexander  II. 

below,         •*  Alexander  I.,  read  Alexander  II. 


14, 

6 

23, 

4 

23, 

16 

23, 

18 

68, 

8 

88, 

16 

118, 

15 

149, 

3 

186, 

4 

306, 

25 

306, 

4 

334 


in.    MODEEN  TIMES.    1492-1883  A.  D. 


Seventh  Period.     J4g2-id48  A.  D. 


1492,    Columbus  discovers  America. 
1498,    Passage  by  sea  lo  the  East  In- 
dies discovered. 
1515.    Battle  at  Marignano. 
1517.    Reformation  beginning  in  Ger- 
many. 

Martin  Luther. 
1519.    Zwingli. 

Magellan. 
152 1.    Diet  at  Worms. 
1523.    Gustavus  Vasa. 

1529.  Protestants. 

1530.  Confession  of  Augsburg. 
1532.    Nicholas  Copernicus. 
1540.    Order  of  Jesuits. 

1555.    Peace  of  religion  at  Augsburg. 


1564.    W.  .Shakespeare  (died  1616). 

Galileo. 
1566.    Nicholas  Zrini. 
1572.    St.  Bartholomew  of  Paris. 
"^STy-'^o.    Drake's  voyage  around  the 

earth. 
1589-1610.    Henry  IV.  of  France. 
1598.    Edict  of  Nantes. 
1618-1648.    Thirty  years'  war. 

1629.  Restitution  edict. 

1630.  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Germany. 

1631.  Battle  at  Leipsic. 

1632.  Battle  at  Liitzen. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  dies. 

1642.    Is.  Newton  (1725). 
1648.    Westphalian  peace. 


Eighth   Period.     i648-i'j8g  A.  D. 


1643-1 7 1 5.    Louis  XIV. 
1649.    Charles  I.  executed. 
1653.    Cromwell  protector. 
1682-1725.    Peter  the  Great. 

1683.  John  Sobieski  delivers  Vienna. 

1684.  Peter  Corneille,  French  poet. 

1685.  Revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 

1688.  James  II.  fled  from  England. 

1689.  William  III.,  king  of  England. 
1692.    Witches  burnt  at  Salem. 

1694.  Lafontaine  dies. 

1695.  Voltaire  (1778). 
1697-1718.    Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 
1701-1714.    Spanish  succession  war. 
1 70 1.    Battle  of  Narva. 

1 702-1 7 14.    Anne,  queen  of  England. 

1703.  Peter  I.  founds  Petersburg. 

1704.  Battle  at  Hochstedt  (Blenheim). 
1709.    Charles    XII.  defeated   at   Pul- 

towa. 
1 714-1727.    George  I.  of  England. 
1 724-1803.    Klopstock,  the  poet. 
1 724-1804.    Kant,  the  philosopher. 
1 729-1 78 1.    Lessing  flourished. 
1 733-1813.    Wieland,  the  poet. 
1 740-1 786.    Frederic  II.   of  Prussia. 
1 749- 1 832.    Goethe,  the  poet. 
1755.    Braddock's  defeat. 

Earthquake  in  Lisbon. 

The    French  driven  into  exile  from 
Acadia. 
1 756-1 763.    Seven  years' war. 
1757.    Battle  at  Rosbach. 
1759-1805.    Frederic  Schiller,  the  poet. 
1759.    The  Jesuits  expelled  from  Por- 
tugal. 


1759.  Battle  of  Quebec,  and  death  of 
Wolfe. 

1765.    Passage  of  the  Stamp  act. 

1 768-1 769.  Cook's  voyages  of  discov- 
ery. 

1772.  First  partition  of  Poland. 

1773.  Abolishment  of  the  Order  of 
the  Jesuits. 

1773.  Destruction  of  tea  in  Boston 
harbor. 

1774.  The  English  shut  up  the  harbor 
of  Boston, 

A  congress  of  the  colonies  meets  at 
Philadelphia. 

1775-17^3-  Contest  of  the  United 
v^^tates  for  independence. 

March  17,  1776.  The  British  evacuate 
Boston. 

July  4,  1776.  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence adopted  by  the  American 
Congress. 

Aug.  27,  1776.   Battle  at  Long  Island. 

Dec.  25,  1776.    Battle  at  Trenton. 

Sept.  II,  1777.    Battle  at  Brandywine. 

Oct.  4,  1777.    Battle  at  Germantown. 

Oct.  15,  1777.  Burgoyne  capitulates  at 
Saratoga. 

Feb.  6,  1778.  French  alliance  with 
America. 

Aug.  16,  1780.    Battle  at  Camden. 

1 780-1 790.    Joseph  II. 

Oct.  19,  1782.    Cornwallis  surrenders. 

Nov.  30,  1782.  The  independence  of 
America  acknowledged  by  Eng- 
land. 


335 

Ninth  Period.     lySg-iSij  A.  D. 


1 789-1 797.  George  Washington  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States. 

1789- 1 79 1.  National  Assembly  in 
France. 

July   14,   1789.    Storming  the  Bastile. 

Aug.  4,  1789.  Abolition  of  the  feudal 
service. 

1 791-1792.   Legislative  assembly. 

1792.  Austro-Prussian  war  against 
France. 

1 792- 1 795 .    National  convent. 

1 792- 1 804.    French  republic. 

1792.  Cotton-gin  invented. 

1793.  First  coalition  war. 
Second  partition  of  Poland. 

1794.  Abolition  of  slavery  in  the 
French  colonies. 

July  27,    1794.    Downfall  of  the  reign 

of  terror. 
1 795-1 799.    Directorial  government  in 

France. 

1795.  Third  partition  of  Poland. 

1796.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  in  Italy. 
Nov.  15  and  16.    Battle  at  Arcole. 

1796.  Invention  of  lithography. 

1797.  Peace  of  Campo  P^ormio. 

1798.  Second  coalition  war. 
Expedition  to  Egypt. 
Battle  at  the  Pyramids. 

Aug.  I,  1798.  Naval  battle  at  Abukir. 
1 799-1804.    Consular    government    in 

France. 
June  14,   1800.     Battle  at  Marengo. 
Dec.  4,   1800.    Battle  of  Hohenlinden. 
1 80 1.    Peace  ol  Luneville. 
1804-1815.    French  empire. 

1805.  Third  coalition  war. 

Oct.  21,  1805.  Naval  battle  at  Trafalgar. 
Dec.    2,    1805.    Battle    of    Austerlitz, 
Peace  of  Presburg. 

1806.  Prusso-Russian  war  against 
France. 


1806.  The  double  battle  at  Auer- 
stedt  and  Jena. 

1807.  Battle   of  Friedland. 
Peace  of  Tilsit. 

The  first  steamboat  built  by  Fulton. 

1808.  Spanish  war. 

1809.  Austrian  war. 

May  2 1  and  22 .     Battle  at  Aspern. 
July  5  and   6.     Battle  at   Wagram. 
Peace  of  Vienna. 
1810-1825.    Contests   of   the    Spanish 
colonies  for  mdependence. 

1 8 12.  P'ranco-Russian  war. 
Battle  at  the  Moskwa. 

Sept.     15-19,    1812.    Conflagration   of 

Moscow. 
1812-1814.    English-American  war. 

18 13.  A  British  squadron  captured  by 
Commodore  Perry. 

Aug.  24,  1 8 14.  The  capitol  in  Wash- 
ington burned  by  the  English. 

Sept.  II,  1814.  Commodore  McDon- 
ough  destroyed,  in  the  harbor  of 
Plattsburg,  a  British  flotilla. 

Jan.  8,  1815.  General  Jackson  defeated 
the  English  at  New  Orleans. 

1813.  Last  coalition  war. 

Oct.  16-19,  1813.    Battle  at  Leipsic. 

1 8 14.  Restoration    of   the    Bourbons. 
Napoleon  banished  to  Elba. 

May    30,   1 8 14.    First  peace  of  Paris. 

Nov.  I,  1814.    Congress  in  Vienna. 

March  i,  18 15.  Napoleon  returns  to 
France. 

June  18,  1815.    Battle  at  Waterloo. 

Aug.  7,  18 1 5.  Napoleon  taken  pris- 
oner, and  carried  off  to  St.  Helena 
(1821). 

18 15.  The   Holy   Alliance   concluded. 
Abolition  of  the  slave  trade. 

Nov.  20,  18 1 5.    Second  peace  of  Paris. 


Tenth  Period.     1815-^883  A.  D. 


1820.  Insurrections    in    Naples    and 
Piedmont. 

Revolution  in  Spain. 

1821.  Insurrection  in  Portugal. 
1821-1829.    Combat  of  the  Greeks  for 

liberty. 

1823.  Bozzaris'  heroic  death. 

1824.  Brazil  separated  from  Portugal. 

1826.  Capture  of  Missolonghi. 

1827.  Naval  battle  at  Navarino. 
First  railroad   built  in   the    United 

States. 
1829.    Irish  Catholics  admitted  to  Par- 
liament. 


1830.  Revolution  of  July  in  Paris. 
Charles  X.  dethroned. 

Louis  Philippe,  king  of  the  French. 
Belgium  separates  from  Holland. 
The  cholera  in  Europe. 

1 83 1.  Battle  at  Ostrolenca. 

Reform    of  Parliament    in  England. 

1832.  Cuvier  and  Walter  Scott  die. 
1835.    Slave   emancipation  bill  passed 

in  England. 
1842.   The  English  Corn  laws  relaxed. 

1844.  Electric  telegraph  invented. 

1845.  Annexation    of    Texas    to    the 
United  States. 


YC   15646 


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